LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



. iixi#"ftu 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



TEACHERS' EDITION. 



THK 




Copyright by D. APPLETON & CO., 1879. 



THE 






Language Pen and Picture Series, 



By J. H. STICKNEY, 



EMBRACES 



THE CHILD'S BOOK OF LANGUAGE, 



IN FOUR NUMBERS, 



For use in Primary Schools, based upon a course of conversational picture- 
lessons, the results of which are to be written in the pages of the book ; 



AND 



LETTERS AND LESSONS IN LANGUAGE, 

IN TWO SERIES OF' FOUR NUMBERS EACH, 

Which continues the course in Grammar Schools, creating occasion for 
the natural use of language forms, without anticipating the study of 
grammar, before it can be profitably taken. 



The Series combines the advantages of both oral and text-book in- 
struction. 

Words are treated as concrete and pictorial terms, illustration taking 
for the most part the place commonly given to definition. 

The pupil is taught by what he does, making steps of his own, which, 
being expressed in written form, remain to be retraced at will. 

The following are apparent distinctive features : 

1. Best because most natural language culture. 

2. Easy grading for composition. 

3. Oral instruction in permanent form. 

4. A practical course in writing. 



THE CHILD'S BOOK OF LANGUAGE. 






IN FOUR NUMBERS. 

I. STORIES IN PICTURES. 

II. STUDIES IN ANIMALS. 

III. STUDIES IN PLANTS. 

IV. STUDIES IN WORDS. 



TEACHERS' EDITION. 



Principles and Methods. 

Oral Instruction, always the ideal, is in language- culture the only 
means of successful teaching, since it alone makes place for spontaneous 
expression. 

But oral instruction means more than the pursuance of a book plan 
minus the book, however good both hook and plans may be. 

It is the intelligent conversational method of bringing to expression 
the previous knowledge of the learner, and making it a basis for added 
inference, demonstration, or fact. 

Its strength lies in the opportunity given the learner to come to the 
apprehension of knowledge, step by step, with the delight of a discoverer, 
and the habit it induces of correct investigation. 

The weakness, if there be one, is in the absence of a record, outside 
the memory, for the better preservation of the knowledge gained. Manu- 
script records, however, meet this want for the time, and later studies, 
presenting the same facts in deductive or scientific form in books, provide 
fully against real loss. 

Both science and experience have shown that truth that has once 
clearly commended itself in a living way to the intelligence is not lost, if 
apparently forgotten. 

If what has been said of oral teaching be true, it plainly follows that 
details of method can not be given in advance, or if given can not be 



closely followed. Each lesson is the joint product of the work of the 
teacher and the class ; its limitations they jointly share ; and the success 
of the teaching is to he measured by the capabilities invoked in the class. 

Yet is there a kind of Social Science in this as in other fields of life, by 
which what might not be predicted of an individual may be expected of 
a school in the aggregate. All teachers know this, and act upon it in pre- 
paring lessons, but till foresight is justified by experience it should be 
only tentative. Acknowledged mistakes are better than forced ways. 

An unclouded social atmosphere in the schoolroom, absolute natural- 
ness, and a correct estimate of desired and obtainable results, are con- 
stant factors in success of the highest order. 

Differences in natural aptitude for teaching show most where work is 
so living. The quick instinct that recognizes the movement of another's 
mind and meets it where it halts, is always the better part of a teacher's 
gift and power, and in oral lessons is invaluable. But one is not likely to 
be found in a schoolroom at all, if entirely wanting in power to win the 
confidence of children and enter into their lives, and both parable and 
precedent teach us not to despise the one talent with which we may begin. 

It is not uncommon to observe in teachers great magnetic power while 
doing their part of the work, without corresponding life while gathering 
the responses of the children. The meagerness of results is then falsely 
attributed to dullness on the part of pupils, and the standard of lessons is 
lowered. 

Others overdo the matter of enthusiasm, creating an unnatural stimu- 
lus and inducing a kind of smartness that is fatal to results of a high 
character. 

The happy mean is reached when the teacher is genuinely interested 
in all healthy signs of progress, and expresses pleasure in a natural way, 
not as a means of effecting a purpose, but as a free response to the child. 

Since the first edition of this series was issued, the author has been 
asked if in a familiar way items of personal experience in language-train- 
ing might not be given to aid others in their first trial of the books. 

Such aid is most gladly given to any extent short of antagonizing the 
very aim of the series, which, as is stated in the definition of oral instruc- 
tion, is to induce teachers themselves to make plans based upon their best 



beliefs, so following ideas rather than models. The following chapter 
gives a single plan for appealing to the language faculty. 

Beginnings of Language-Culture. 

With little children whose previous habit had been in the line of rote- 
recitation, and whose idea of a school was stilted and unnatural, I have 
sometimes broken through the reserve by giving ten minutes at the open- 
ing of each session to familiar talk. 

Some question like " What would you do with a five-cent piece ? " has 
served for a key to unlock the closed gates. The object being conversa- 
tion, I took no care to hold thought to a subject. It was sometimes diffi- 
cult to find a law of association to account for the vagarious contribu- 
tions, which were subject to no restrictions if they were respectful. 

After a few days, concentration to a single idea came of itself, without 
violence to individual freedom, each talk being longer or shorter, within 
prescribed limits, according to the resources of the children. Often the 
introduction itself was made by a child, out of some remembrance of a 
preceding talk. 

If amusing, the children's remarks were laughed at a moment ; but some 
one could always be found who was ready with a new thought, to which 
the class turned readily: 

If obscure, the thought was sought out by questions and a new expres- 
sion secured; 

If valuable, for any reason, a remark was shown to be so by my recog- 
nition of it, and by something I made it a point to add ; 

If trivial or rude, a saying was ignored and allowed to sink without 
creating a ripple in our waters ; and nothing so effectually silenced imper- 
tinence or coarseness, that was only half conscious, as absolute non-recog- 
nition. 

Under the influence of this social stimulus shy children waxed confi- 
dential, and a host of home and outside matters, entirely irrelevant except 
under this broad law of suggestion, were poured out like pent-up waters. 
When the slow, the shy, the unsocial, and the uninteresting had found 
their places in our body politic, and all of us had come to feel a common 
interest, this pioneer work dropped or was merged in specific lessons hav- 
ing an added motive. 



Experience taught me the truth of the statement of the rhetoricians, 
that narration is easier than description. In obedience to it, if animals 
were chosen for language- work, we dwelt first upon their ways / if peo- 
ple, upon some incident of their lives. 

In the Language Series I have placed the Stories in Pictures first, as 
giving widest range. One or two lessons wrought out in detail will show 
the spirit of all. Perhaps the less stress that is laid upon a way may 
result in most and best ways. 

The Notes on Animals and Plants are purposely given in language too 
difficult for children. Description is to be, so far as it is at all, wrought 
out in the minds of the children themselves. I often found it difficult, in 
the midst of teaching, to avail myself of the best books on natural history, 
and, when I had access to them, made notes in condensed form for future 
reference. These I have given for the help of others. I earnestly hope 
they will never be taught to children as having value in themselves. In 
so far as the teacher needs to guide the thoughts of her class by question 
and suggestion, she may in turn be helped by these fragments of observa- 
tion by those whose opportunities have been wider than her own. They 
must, however, be assimilated to her own life before she can make them 
living in her teaching. 

The fourth book represents great possibilities in the discrimination of 
words. I would recommend to teachers that they do what commends 
itself at first look, expecting each new time of teaching to reveal the 
added opportunities. A rigid plan would defeat itself. 



STORIES IN PICTURES. 



Introduction to Number One. 



The story-making power needs little beyond the opportunity for its 
exercise and the interested response that childhood always claims. 

Since, however, time is so great a desideratum in our school exercises, 
the teacher must play an important part in making the work of forty 
come into the time for one. 

The pictures serve to gather to a single point or center the thoughts 
of all, and give a kind of unity to their action. Questions, happy sug- 
gestions, and the like, act as stimulants to thoughts and fancies. The 
expression of one thought opens the way to another and another, till one 
is often troubled to know what to do with all that is brought forward to 
make part of the pleasing whole that children expect. 

They are, however, easily satisfied, so that, while demanding a teacher's 
highest gifts, they are gratified with the least exercise of them, and look 
upon her work in setting their gems as little less than that of a goddess. 

Each picture may have a number of stories equally applicable, and in 
all respects equally good. The teacher may delay the writing of the 
story till a number have been orally wrought, and then let each child 
choose for his own writing ; or, she may go through the book with the 
gathering of a single story to each page, and afterward review it, either 
with a fresh copy of the book, or with the help of slates, requiring a 
different story. 

The book contains twenty pictures, as the work of a half year, allow- 
ing in most schools a week to a page. Less work would be more difficult, 
by reason of too long intervals between the lessons and a consequent loss 
of interest and power ; and, if more is undertaken, it had better be in the 
line of Studies in Animals or Plants, which, with older children, may 
serve for alternate days or weeks. 

A single lesson, the story of Robbie, shows the work of one teacher 
in her one class. It may not be the best for any other, but it shows a 
possible method. It is not thought that a full sketching of plans would 
be desirable. 




Trying to Think and Write. 




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Tell the story of Robbie. 



Sketch of lesson with children of 
seven years. 

Introduction : " Look at the picture, 
so as to have it in your minds. Presently 
we will talk about it ; then I shall want 
you to look at me ! 

" Now let us read the words at the 
left of the page.' 1 This is done, and we 
decide that the words and picture belong 
to the same story, and tell which of them 
show this. 

"Willie, what do you see in the 
picture ? " 

" A little boy." 

Who is he ? " Robbie." 

We pause a moment, till I have all 
looking to me to see what is coming next, 
then I ask again : 

" Who is he ? " 

If no reply is given, I tell the children 
that, since none of them want him, I shall 
adopt him as my little nephew ! I after- 
ward waive my right as they tell me — 

"He is my little brother." "He is 
a friend of mine." " He is my cousin." 



"How o&Zishe?" 

We decide that he is not far from 
four, but, as there have been differences 
of opinion, agree to say that he is about, 
almost, nearly, or not quite four years 
old. I call upon different ones to tell 
what we have learned, and accept the 
following forms : 

1. My little cousin Robbie is almost 
four years old. 

2. I have a little brother. His name 
is Robbie. He is four years old. 

3. Robbie is my little friend. He is 
not quite four years old. 

This ends the lesson as a conversation. 
The children write the result on their 
slates, and afterward in the books. 

Next time : We look again at the 
picture, read the words, and tell what is 
mentioned that is not in the picture. 

" There is no garden " — " no flowers " 
— "no mamma." 

There is doubt about the " I will," 
but we think we see it in the little face, 
and here we make a pause. 










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What about Bessie? 



THE EOBBIE STOEY CONTINUED. 



Since "garden," "flowers," and 
"mamma," are in the story, we conclude 
that R. is trying to make a garden, that 
he wants some roses for his mamma, and 
thinks this is the way to get them. 

How happened he to think of it to- 
day ? 

Perhaps he heard her wish for some. 

He is a very little hoy, I tell them, 
and I think it quite possible that he does 
not know exactly what he means by 
roses, or what is needful in raising them. 

"Do you begin to like little E.? 
i" do. Look at his face and tell me about 
him." 

He is good — loving — kind — generous 
— a dear little boy — nice, etc. We select 
hind and loving, and gather all that we 
have learned at this time to add to our 
story, but pause to ask when it was that 
he did this, and, after the various answers, 
settle upon " one day" 

1. He is a kind, loving little boy. 
One day he heard his mamma say she 



liked flowers. He put on his big hat, 
and took his new spade. " I will make 
a garden," he said, "and get her some 
roses." 

2. Robbie is very kind and loving. He 
heard his mamma say that she would 
like some flowers. " I will make a gar- 
den," he said, " and plant some roses for 
you." 

I teach them how to write the quota- 
tions, and write both forms on the board. 

The third lesson tells that it was a hot 
day, that Robbie was very busy, but that 
the thick grass made hard work. 

And the fourth completes the story 
by telling what happened. His mother 
found him under the tree, close by the 
wall, asleep. He was so tired, he said, 
and he forgot where his garden was, but 
would plant some roses for her the next 
time she wanted them. Or, perhaps, she 
told him that next time he must ask his 
older brother to help him and teach him 
how to make a garden. 



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The class divide— half agreeing to be Alice, and half to be kitty. The 
teacher will try to be each in turn. Which shall speak first ? 
The lesson may be written as a dialogue. 



Questions for page 19 : 

What time of day is it ? Are the sparrows hungry f Are they afraid f 
Perhaps they can not decide to which of them it belongs. What 
would they say if they could talk ? 

What will the beetle do if be can get a chance ? 



Plans for page 20 : 

The kind of bird ? its name ? where it lives ? who owns and cares for 
it ? what it likes to eat ? whether it is safe to leave the cage-door open ? 
Does he sing ? Does he know his name ? What interesting ways has he ? 

Or, suppose this little girl to be a visitor, and not to have a right to 
open the cage. Tell what happened, and who was very greatly grieved. 



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THE STUDY OF ANIMALS. 



Introduction to Number Two. 



Method in animal lessons must vary with the general aptitudes of 
teachers and children. Among many plans it is difficult to choose ; only, 
there must be a plan both for each lesson and for the course — general 
enough to admit of variety, and continuous enough to prevent the children 
from always waiting for the teacher to take the lead. 

There are advantages, especially with young pupils, in short lessons 
answering to a single thought. For example : The horns and hoofs of the 
cow may be sufficient for a ten minutes' talk and a gathered statement. 
The way she eats, gathering the grass with her tongue and breaking it 
with a twist, while the horse cuts it with his teeth, and the camel takes 
hold first with the lips, and the added fact of chewing the cud, may serve 
for a second. With older children, other animals, of which the one in the 
lesson is a type, may be studied, though the blanks are only sufficient 
for writing about one. 

The teacher who is heartily interested will constantly grow in the 
knowledge of animals, and will feel a desire to bring the class into sym- 
pathy with them, by giving the thoughts of others about them in poems, 
songs, and stories, as well as in doing her special work of teaching how 
to observe their forms and ways. 

Children like to tell stories when relieved from their first embarrass- 
ment, and in no way can the teacher learn the language-needs of her class 
so well as by studying them when intense interest has thrown them off 
their guard, so that they fall into home ways. 

Most teachers lose this, their best opportunity, by suppressing familiar 
talk rather than training it into pleasing expression. The more forward 
and ready, who need the practice least, are the ones who commonly get 
most of it, and real power and wit wait for a fluency that can only be 
gained through encouragement and practice. 




How do you know the 
cow? How do you distin- 
guish her from the horse ? — 
the sheep ? — the deer ? 

Cows do no work : why 
is it that so many people 
keep them? 

Describe a summer day 
in the life of a cow. 

The ox is of the same 
family : how does his life 
differ from hers ? 



The Cow. 



TEACHEES NOTES. 

Cows, in common with other rumi- 
nants, have two toes, covered with horny 
hoofs, so fitted as to look like a single 
round hoof, cut in the middle. This and 
the habit of chewing the cud are their spe- 
cial peculiarities. 

For chewing the cud they have a pecu- 
liar stomach, one part of which takes the 
food and lets it soak till it is soft ; then 
at the animal's leisure it is brought back 
in little balls, to be chewed and made fit 
for the work of the real stomach. 

The cow is known by her curved, hol- 
loio horns, deep neck (which is made to 
seem deeper by the hanging dewlap), stout, 
clumsy body, and strong legs. Along the 
back there is a straight ridge, raised in 
some at the thighs to a low hump. The 
tail is long, with a tuft of hair at the end. 

The ears are large, and can be turned 
to catch sound, and the eyes far apart, 
commanding a wide range. 

The cow is valued for her milk. Her 
flesh is a staple article of food ; and the 
hide, hair, horns, bones, and hoofs have 
well-known uses. 



METHOD. 

In general, let there be but little ap- 
pearance of method, while yet the direc- 
tion of thought is given. A few leading 
questions will indicate a plan. Much 
may be made of the question, "How do 
you know this animal ? " One answers, 
" By its horns." " Yes, but the deer has 
them, too." This opens the way for de- 
scribing those of both. 

2. "If she were to lose her horns, would 
you mistake her for a horse? " The line 
of the back, the clumsy body, and other 
parts, will follow this lead. " Suppose you 
saw footprints of the horse and cow in the 
street, how should you know them both ? " 

3. Again, " How else do you know the 
cow ? " " Suppose some one showed you 
the hide, just as it was taken off, could 
you tell what it was ? " 

If the sentences are faulty, do not 
talk of them as sentences, but as thoughts 
or facts stated. When the time for writ- 
ing comes, let it be preceded by oral an- 
swers to very explicit questions ; and, if 
there is still doubt about the result, let it 
be first a slate exercise. 




If you were going to select 
a horse for vour own, what 
kind of a one would you 
have ? 

Suppose your horse were 
lost or stolen, describe him so 
that he might be returned. 

Tell some of the ways by 
which the playful, springing 
colt is trained into a useful, 
obedient horse, without loss of 
spirit. 



The Horse. 



teachers' notes. 

The characteristics of the horse are 
the noble and graceful carriage of the 
arched neck, with its line of long flowing 
mane, and the tapering head, with full 
eyes, large sensitive nostrils, and upright 
pointed ears turning to catch sounds. 

There is an opening between the ca- 
nine teeth and the molars on each side, 
into which the bit of the bridle is fitted 
to govern the direction in driving. 

The tody is long and symmetrical, 
stout in those species where strength is 
required, but in no case clumsy. 

The slender, straight, small-pointed 
legs are of equal length, making the body 
horizontal. The droop in the line of the 
back just behind the shoulders makes rid- 
ing on the back possible and comfortable. 

The feet are small, ending in a single 
toe, inclosed in a horny hoof or shoe. 

The covering is a thick skin thinly 
covered with smooth hair. The tail is 
long and flowing. 

The remarkable memory of the horse, 
united with his great intelligence, makes 
almost any item of education possible. 



METHOD. 

Questioning upon the choice of a horse 
will call into expression what the chil- 
dren know of the colors common among 
horses. Where the mane and tail differ 
from the general color, let it be stated ; 
e. g., "A dark-red horse usually has a 
black mane and tail." 

The wish for great speed will make 
prominent the slender body and long 
legs. Beauty in a horse will call atten- 
tion to all the points of form. The 
teacher is in no danger of getting be- 
yond the power of her class if all that 
she tells them grows out of some point 
of their own. 

Ways of driving suggest the different 
motions of the horse in traveling — am- 
bling or pacing, cantering or galloping, 
and the more general trot and walk of or- 
dinary driving. 

Let some feats of trained horses be 
told, and use them to develop the expres- 
sion of docility, native intelligence, and 
capability for education. The sentences 
may begin, "I should like to own," etc., 
or, "I have a . . . . . ." 




This must be the kind of 
animal that first tanght boys 
to climb trees ! Describe his 
manner of doing it. 

How could you distin- 
guish him from a great black 
dog ? What habits of his 
make him a terror ? Is he 
really so dangerous ? 

What interesting things 
are bears trained to do in 
menageries ? 



The Black Bear. 



teachers' notes. 

The bear is characterized first by be- 
ing plantigrade, i. e., walking upon the 
sole of the foot. It is this that gives him 
his awlzward, shuffling gait. It also helps 
him to rest upon his haunches and stand 
erect — one of his common attitudes. 

He is an excellent swimmer, and in 
warm weather delights in the water. 

It is said also that he revels in the 
fury of a storm, and, when other animals 
are overcome by it, takes advantage of 
the opportunity it gives to secure them 
easily for food. The black bear does not 
seem to delight in killing his prey. He 
does not do it in a "direct, business-like 
way, as the lion does," but hugs it to 
death, or tears it. 

He is fond of honey, sweet roots, 
green wheat and corn, apples, etc. 

He rarely attacks man unless in great 
hunger ; but the farmer has need to secure 
his hogs and calves if the bear has once 
known the taste of them. 

The flesh of the bear is delicate, re- 
sembling pork. The covering is a smooth 
fur, much in demand in commerce. 



METHOD. 

So much is known of the bear that it 
is quite probable that the teacher's work 
will be mainly the asking of questions, 
and helping the children to recast their 
answers for more connected expression 
than is common in eager talking. Stilted 
sentences, that miss the freshness and life 
of the thought, must, however, be care- 
fully avoided. 

His cautious climbing and coming 
down the tree backward, like a boy, if 
told, will not be forgotten. 

Reference to his caution will give 
credence to the fact that a person may 
escape him by climbing a tree too small 
around and too light for him. Tell the 
children that farmers' wives and daughters 
will go out and frighten away a bear that 
is prowling around the barnyard, with 
little more fear than we might feel if a 
strange cow intruded upon our premises ; 
yet at times they are really dangerous. 

The winter life of the bear is well 
known ; and the care the mother-bear 
takes of her young is a lesson in itself of 
self-denial and loving devotion. 




What would you do if 
this little creature were 
yours ? 

What would he do that 
would interest you? Sup- 
pose, instead, that he had 
a nest in a hickory or oak 
tree near by, and you could 
watch him without taking 
away his freedom, what 
other things would you 
see ? 



The Squirrel. 



teachers' notes. 

The structural peculiarities are shown 
in the four front teeth, two above and 
two below, with chisel edges meeting at 
an angle in front of the line of the jaws. 

The hard enamel only covers the front, 
and the softer material of the back wears 
away faster and so leaves always a sharp 
edge. Constant growth supplies the waste 
of wearing, and keeps them strong. The 
movement of the jaw is simply forward 
and backward (besides the opening and 
shutting), so that the hardest substances 
are easily reduced to powder. 

They are timid animals, and small in 
size. The hinder parts of the body are 
strong, and the fore paints small and deli- 
cate. In most species there is great free- 
dom of the fore limbs. 

The longer hind legs make their move- 
ments more like leaping and hopping than 
walking. The varieties are the tree and 
ground or burrowing squirrels, and the 
colors are red, red and white, striped, and 
gray. The tree-squirrels have more bushy 
tails than the others, and use them as rud- 
ders in long leaps on trees. 



METHOD. 

The ways of these sprightly little ani- 
mals make them favorites with children, 
and they will tell where they live, and 
how ; how they manage when the nuts 
and fruits are gone ; how they frolic and 
chase each other about; and how their 
marvelous activity is balanced by their 
sleeping in dull weather, as well as nights 
and much of the cold season. 

Let the children tell orally, that they 
may be prepared for the writing, what 
squirrels do in a cage, and what with the 
freedom of the trees arid ground. 

The variety they like in food, while 
feeding mainly on nuts, belongs to the 
knowing how to take care of those that 
are kept in cages. 

Let their quick hearing and sight direct 
attention to the large ears and full eyes, 
and. the need of these to an animal who is 
in constant danger from foes on all sides. 

Ask the children what they would 
like to put into their books, and teach 
them the poem beginning, 

" Look ! there's the squirrel perched aloft — 
That active little rover." 




Is this fellow one of 
your friends ? 

What are some of his 
interesting qualities that 
you might adopt for your- 
self? 

What makes him trou- 
blesome, and what harm can 
he do? 

Tell what the cat thinks 
of him, and his opinion of 
the cat. 



The Brown Rat. 



TEACHERS' NOTES. 

The leading features of this family are : 

The pointed head, with sharp teeth, the 
opposite ones making an angle with each 
other, long whiskers or feelers, large Mack 
eyes, and great hood-shaped ears ; 

A stout neck, chest and shoulders 
small, but thighs strong (called haunches) ; 

Legs and feet slight for so heavy a 
body, with sharp claws ; 

Covering of short, smooth fur, of gray- 
ish brown or black color, and long Jtail. 

For the rest, the rat is best described 
as the embodiment of a voracious appetite. 

He has gone the world over with 
man; traced originally to the East, he 
has taken passage everywhere man has 
gone. He is a terrible burrower, some- 
times undermining dams. He breeds very 
fast, and so multiplies rapidly. The 
brown rat expels the black rat and the 
mouse wherever it makes a home. 

The harvest mouse of England, small- 
est and most beautiful of animals, builds \ 
an exquisitely constructed, ball-like nest 
above the ground in corn-rows, and bur- 
rows in the ground in winter. 



METHOD. 

Begin the lesson without naming the 
subject, or opening to the picture. Speak 
of animals that flee from man, and those 
that choose to be near him. Tell of this 
one, who has been a frequent companion. 
Man does not like him, and he does not 
much like man, though choosing the good 
things man is pretty sure to have a sup- 
ply of. 

Yet he is an interesting creature if 
we can lay aside our prejudice and study 
him. 

By this time the animal can be named, 
and the picture may be studied. 

The case alters with the side from 
which we look at it. The rat may gnaw 
through and disfigure a wall, and we for- 
get the perseverance that he shows. He 
is frightened away by every noise, for he 
is timid and has no safety but in flight ; 
but as soon as it is still, he is back again 
and at work. Tell the fable of the lion 
and the mouse. 

Such helplessness has need to choose 
night for its labors, and keep eyes, ears, 
smell, and feeling quick and sure. 



6 




Describe the head, tusks, 
trunk, body, legs, and tail 
of the elephant. 

Tell in what kind of a 
country he lives; what he 
likes to eat ; what he does 
that is peculiar; how he 
defends himself if attacked ; 
and what kind of a dispo- 
sition he has. 

In what ways is he use- 
ful in his native countries ? 



The Elephant. 



TEAOHEES' NOTES. 

Elephants are distinguished by their 
immense bodies, their remarkable trunks, 
and, if in their natural condition, their 
wonderful tusks. 

The correspondence of part with part 
is nowhere shown more impressively. 
The average weight of the pair of tusks, 
in a full-grown elephant, is more than a 
hundred pounds. This the head must 
support, which would be impossible, with 
the weight of other parts of the head, at 
the end of a long neck. The great weight 
of body demands strength of limbs ; and 
freedom in bending is lost where great 
strength is required for support. The 
head is thus lifted above the ground, and 
dependent upon the trunk, which, with 
its thousands of muscles, can be short- 
ened, lengthened, coiled, or stiffened, to 
meet the various needs. It has exquisite 
sensitiveness, and serves for breathing and 
smelling, as well as for other uses. The 
foot of the elephant is inclosed in a horny 
sock or shoe, covering the five toes. The 
skin is thick and tough, and covered thin- 
ly with bristly hair. 



METHOD. 

As the children describe the head, 
show how broad it must be for the thick 
trunk and thicker neck. Let them de- 
cide themselves, in answer to the ques- 
tion, "What are the trunk and tusks?" 
that they are the nose and canine or eye 
teeth lengthened. Also, that the animal 
can not use his mouth in many of the 
ways common among other animals, for 
the very obvious reason of his short 
neck. 

The " finger " at the end of the trunk 
must be described, since it does not ap- 
pear in the picture. 

The rooting up of trees calls for the 
action of the immense tusks, and is to be 
associated with the love the elephant has 
for the juices of the soft roots. One of 
these items mentioned makes occasion 
for all. 

Tell, or call out from the class, some 
story of the remarkable memory of the 
elephant, and with it associate his revenge- 
ful disposition, when provoked beyond 
what his usually docile and gentle habit 
can bear. 




The lion goes out at 
nightfall for his prey. He 
watches — listens — waits ; 
when it is near, he steals 
upon it, springs, seizes it, 
and tears it. 

For every one of these 
acts he has parts exactly 
fitted. 

See if you can find them 
out and describe him accu- 
rately. 



The Lion. 



TEACHEKS' NOTES. 

The Hon is distinguished by his light 
step, elastic motion, and elegance of form. 
Such qualities, united with massive pro- 
portions and great strength, are apt to 
be overpraised. He is called the King of 
Beasts, and a personification of bravery. 
Nations adopt him as their emblem. 

The lion has indeed shown some gen- 
erous, noble traits, and in rarely attacking 
man has deserved his praise. 

His ferocity, however, is the counter- 
part of his majesty. What the cat is to 
mice and birds, the lion is to the greater 
number over which he reigns king. 

For this absolute sovereignty he has 
the keenest of senses, sheathed claws of 
great strength and sharpness, immense 
jaws, and long, sharp teeth. 

The thighs are very muscular, the 
shoulders and fore limbs strong. 

The covering is tawny, yellowish 
brown; short, except on the neck and 
under-parts of the body. 

The family consists of the lion, the lion- 
ess, and two or three cubs. Among them- 
selves they are playful and affectionate. 



METHOD. 

Comparison of the lion and the cat 
will teach something of both. The blink- 
ing, narrow eyes, in bright light, show 
why noonday is the time for sleep, and 
twilight or night for work. 

The animals going to the streams for 
water, or to their places of rest, deter- 
mine where the lion will lie in wait. 
The detection of the particular rustle of 
leaves that means a footfall shows his 
keen hearing, and his seeing where others 
can not shows that he makes up at night 
for what he loses by day. 

The great spring that gives him his 
victim shows his strong thighs and long- 
hind legs. 

Like the cat, the lion holds his prey 
with the fore paws till it is dead, then 
tears it with teeth and rough tongue. 

The shaggy mane, large, full eyes, and 
long whiskers give him a look of great 
dignity and strength. 

Like the cat, he does not make an 
open attack, but creeps silently till with- 
in reach ; then " a bound, a roar, and a 
blow, and all is over. 1 ' 




This animal takes the 
place of a horse, an ox, and 
a cow, and has one of the 
uses of the sheep. 

Though he is so heavy, 
his step is noiseless. He 
carries the water and food 
for a journey, and the cush- 
ions on which he rests, with- 
out seeming to be loaded. 

Describe his form, his 
ways, and his usefulness. 



The Camel. 



teachers' notes. 

Camels are the wealth of the Arab. 
Some he keeps for their strength, some 
for speed, and some for those difficult 
journeys where all who go must be pre- 
pared to meet with danger and depriva- 
tion. 

The most marked feature is the 
hump — single in the dromedary or Ara- 
bian camel, and double in the Bac- 
trian. 

It is & firm, fatty substance, that de- 
creases when food is scarce, but increases 
when it is abundant again. 

Like the cow, he chews the cud,, 
and, unlike her, he can fill one of his 
stomachs with water to provide against 
thirst in long desert journeys. In place 
of the horny hoof of most animals 
that bear burdens, the camel has a soft, 
elastic cushion, covered with a callous 
skin. The two parts spread a little on 
sandy ground, so keeping him from sink- 
ing. 

The eyes are large and prominent, 
and his vision is keen. The brow over- 
hamgs them so that they are shielded 



from the glare of the burning sun. The 
nostrils can be closed from the clouds of 
sand without interfering with his breath- 
ing. The callosities or pads, one on the 
breast, two on each of the fore legs, and 
one on each hind leg, support the weight 
and protect like a cushion from the burn- 
ing sand. 

method. 

The things that are known in the case 
of a foreign animal form the basis for 
what can be told. If the reading of the 
children has made them familiar in imagi- 
nation with the desert, they can reason 
out the needs of an animal that must 
traverse it. The work of the teacher is 
to picture intensely one part, and let it 
emphasize the other. If, as in this case, 
they are told of the noiseless tread, they 
must tell what kind of a foot it involves. 
Tf told that it does work, they must, by 
the picture, tell what it has to fit it for 
work, and what traits of character it must 
have. The use by men of the milk of 
the female, the woolly hair, and the flesh, 
still further associates it with our bovine 
species. 



9 




Compare the owl and 
the cat. 

Do you see any resem- 
blance in their faces ? 

What has the cat to fit 
her for her place, and the 
owl for a very different 
one? 

How does the owl fare 
in winter, when the food 
it likes can not be found ? 



The Owl and the Cat. 



TEACHERS NOTES. 

The round heads and flattened faces 
of these two species, with their similar 
habits, have led to the coupling of them. 
The owl has been called the "feathered 
cat," and the cat the u furred owl." In 
the species of owl with pointed tufts of 
feathers resembling ears, there is quite a 
singular resemblance. 

The food they seek is identical; the 
time of getting it also, and the stealthi- 
ness of their ways. 

The cat has a silent step, and the owl 
a noiseless flight. The padded paws ef- 
fect this for the cat, and the soft, downy 
feathers for the owl. 

Some of the owls are very beautiful in 
their thick mottled plumage, and some 
are pure white. 

The dish of feathers pointing outward 
from the socket of the eyes makes them 
like port-holes in a wall ; and their vision, 
like that of the cat, is wonderful in a 
little light, but obscure in midday. 

The owl sleeps much of the time in 
the winter, when its food is scanty, and 
so does not require a great amount. 



METHOD. 

Let those who have seen the living 
bird, or a stuffed specimen, tell whether 
or not there is resemblance; and let the 
others look at the picture. 

Question about the habits of both owl 
and cat, so as to draw the parallel. Chil- 
dren are very ready to draw inferences. 
The teacher needs always to take care 
that they have sufficient ground. 

Lead the class to decide under what 
circumstances the owl has the advantage, 
and under what the cat. The varieties 
in size in different species is a point of 
interest. The smallest are not larger than 
a pigeon, and the largest is of about the 
size of the golden eagle. 

Like the eagle, the owl will sit for 
hours with hardly a sign of life. This 
habit and the peculiar wide-open eyes of 
the owl have given it a character for wis- 
dom, though " wise as an owl " may have 
sarcasm in it. The soft, thick plumage, 
covering all but the tip of the beak and 
of the talons, makes a warm wrapping 
for his nights of watching, and is not 
heavy. 



10 




Here is the King of 
Birds. 

How is he like the lion ? 
Benjamin Franklin called 
him the dishonest bird. 

Describe his beak and 
talons. 

Tell what kind of wings, 
he must have, and some- 
thing about his eyes. 

What care do the eagles 
take of their young ? 



The Eagle. 



TEACHERS NOTES. 

The eagle is one of the largest and 
most powerful of the feathered tribes. 
Like the lion among the beasts, it is an 
emblem of royalty ; but, like him, it lives 
for its own ends, and often secures them 
in questionable ways. 

The physical peculiarities are the 
strong, hooked deak, and the sharp talons. 
With the latter it strikes its prey, then 
tears it with the beak. The powerful 
wings adapt it to its strong but not rapid 
flight. The golden eagle is three feet in 
length. Its color is a rich hrown, looking 
golden in some parts under the bright 
sunlight. The age of these birds is 
often remarkable. It is not uncommon 
for them to be over a hundred years 
old. 

The bald eagle is common near the 
falls of Niagara, where it finds fish, and 
the bodies of deer, squirrels, etc., that 
have perished in attempting to cross the 
river. It watches the fish-hawk, and 
robs it of its prey. It was from some 
such habits as this that Franklin regret- 
ted its being our national emblem. 



METHOD. 

In beginning the study of birds, call 
attention to their general characteristics. 
The fore limbs are modified to make 
w T ings, and the two hind ones support the 
body when standing. Let the children 
see the three sets of feathers growing out 
of the hand, forearm, and upper arm, or 
parts that correspond to them. Any 
bird's wing will show this. The strength 
in a wing is always a marvel to a child. 
That of the eagle, if striking him, would 
cause instant death. The framework of 
the body of a bird is much lighter than 
that of a beast of the same size. 

The beak has no teeth, but it has all 
the strength of a strong jaw. 

The talons, like the claws of beasts, 
correspond to the nails upon our own 
hands and feet. 

A covering of feathers is light and 
warm. Birds of cold climates have very 
downy feathers under the stiffer ones. 
The eagle, flying so long in bright sun- 
light, has a use for the transparent third 
eyelid, through which, it is said, he can 
look at the sun. 



11 




Every one loves the pi- 
geons. Do you know why ? 

Try to remember what 
you have ever noticed about 
them. 

Compare them with the 
hen and the sparrow. 

Describe the plumage of 
one that you have seen. Re- 
member especially the beau- 
tiful metallic colors often 
seen about the neck. 



The Pigeon. 



teachers' notes. 

Pigeons are interesting on account of 
their double lives. When they are on the 
ground, close about our homes and feed- 
ing from our hands, it seems as if they 
might belong to the hen family. But 
their bodies are smaller and their wings 
longer, and instead of staying among the 
poultry-birds, they are soon off on some 
journey or visit, at the rate of fifty miles 
an hour, or sometimes a mile a minute. 

TJiey are like the perching, and unlike 
the ground birds in general, in pairing. 

They have no song, but their low 
"billing and cooing" is very sweet. 

They breed often, and take good care 
of their young. One of the peculiarities 
of the pigeon family is the milky fluid 
that forms in the crop at the time of 
hatching, called "pigeon's milk." With 
it they moisten the food for their young 
ones. 

The carrier pigeon is made useful by 
being trained to go to particular places, 
on special errands. 

Wild pigeons gather in immense flocks 
for their journeys. 



METHOD. 

The pigeon is a good bird for the class 
to describe. Compare it with the com- 
mon hen, for its more graceful body and 
its longer wings. If specimens can be 
shown, its slightly curved beak may be 
observed. 

Its feet are more like those of perch- 
ing birds, having the hind toe on the same 
level as the others, whereas in scratching 
birds it is higher. This point requires 
the foot of a chicken and of a pigeon, 
that the claws may also be compared. 

Reference to the perfect ease with 
which they wait in the street, picking 
among the offal for the grains, till a horse 
is close upon them, and then, without 
seeming in the least disturbed, rise into 
the air to some convenient perching- 
place, till the way is clear again, shows 
their power of flight, and their long 
sweeps its steadiness. 

Their disposition is shown to be amia- 
ble by the absence of any of the quarrel- 
some ways of other birds. 

In language-work ask a few specific 
questions admitting of only short answers. 



12 




This is the industrious bird. His 
name tells what he is doing early 
and late, and all day long. 

What does he get for it ? 

How does he keep from falling 
while he is hammering at the 
tree? 

Can you think why any one 
should call him the wnha/ppy bird ? 

The cuckoo and the parrot are 
among his relatives — both of them 
good climbers. 



The Woodpecker. 



TEACHEKS' NOTES. 

The woodpecker is both a climber and 
a percher. The outer toe turns oaelcwa/rd, 
so as with the hind toe to oppose the other 
two, as is common among climbing birds. 

The tail-feathers are hard and stiff, end- 
ing in points that, being pressed against 
the bark, assist the bird in keeping its 
position. With these helps it creeps on 
the trees in all directions, or fastens it- 
self, to pursue its work with its bill. 

The bill is wedge-shaped, and as hard 
as ivory. The head and the curved 
neck form " the handle of a hammer, of 
which the beak is the pointed head,' 1 
and with it the bird gives strokes of 
great strength. 

What it wants, in most cases, is the 
grubs that insects have left under the 
bark or in the wood of trees. When it 
has made the open way to them, it 
thrusts out its worm-like tongue, which 
is sticky enough to hold the young insects 
if they touch it. For the larger ones it 
uses the barbs on the horny tip of the 
tongue, piercing their skin and dragging 
them from their hiding-places. 



METHOD. 

Much of the matter given in the notes 
the children can reason out, if helped by 
a few practical questions. The hardness 
of the beak, and the use of head, neck, 
claws, and tail, are natural inferences from 
the fitness that everywhere in the animal 
world prevails between a species and its 
circumstances. When the points of in- 
terest in the structure are made clear, 
the external appearance of the bird may 
be pictured. 

So common a bird might easily be 
had by any teacher who could make 
friends with a village boy who owned a 
gun, and, if not stuffed in a way suited 
for mounting, might be so poisoned and 
cured as to be equally available for use 
in the school-room. 

Questions for language-work, added 
to those at the head of the page, might 
be— 

What parts does he use for his work? 

How is each fitted for it ? 

Refer to the sound he makes at his 
work, and to his note, which is not un- 
like that of the toad. 




4 ,i 

TEACHERS 7 NOTES. 

The peacock is one of the most mag- 
nificent of birds. The grace of form and 
the peculiarities of color unite in distin- 
guishing it among the pheasants, all of 
which are beautiful birds. 

The long train-feathers do not con- 
stitute its tail, which is short. They rise 
from the back, and can be lifted at pleas- 
ure, like an open fan. In either position 
they have great beauty. The head is 
small, and the neck graceful. 

It is amusing to see the bird walking, 
with head turning from side to side to 
view itself, and always endeavoring to 
attract the gaze of persons. It will 
walk back and forth before a window, 
where a person is sitting, till driven 
away. 

In their native countries peacocks 
live among trees ; with us they are kept 
in the barnyards, like other fowls. A 
pair of them may often be seen on an 
English lawn. 

Their dissonant voices and greedy, 
sullen ways prevent their being much 
liked. 



Find all the beauties of 
this beautiful bird. 

In India peacocks are 
found by hundreds. Why 
are they uncommon here ? 

Learn all you can about 
their ways, and the traits of 
character they exhibit. 

What would you say of 
a person who should mani- 
fest the same ? 



The Peacock. 

METHOD. 

This is an excellent lesson for the 
development of traits of character, as 
shown in animals. Picture the acts in 
each case as vividly as possible, and let 
the children make the application. 

When the beauties of the peacock 
have been discussed, tell the children of 
its ways of showing its admiration of its 
own beauties, and let them name the 
quality they illustrate. 

Dragging the train through the wet 
grass and mud would be untidy in a 
lady. 

If the children are not familiar with 
the bird, tell them that it will drive away 
other fowls from a pan of food till it is 
satisfied ; and even then it will stand by 
and mate a clatter with its quills when- 
ever they come near ! On the whole, 
it does not prove a very enjoyable bird ; 
and, added to this, its coarse voice, 
which can be heard at a distance of half 
a mile, and is said to foretell a storm, 
makes few people want one near their 
homes. We do not enjoy vanity and 
greediness even in a bird. 



14 




The ostrich lives in des- 
ert countries, under the 
scorching sun. The wind 
often fills the air with burn- 
ing dust ; the heat is very 
great ; the springs are far 
apart ; and the food is 
scanty. 

He can not fly ; he has 
no sheltered nest. How is it 
that he lives happily under 
circumstances so peculiar ? 



The Ostrich. 



TEACHERS 7 NOTES. 

The ostrich is not unlike the beasts in 
many of its features. 

It is called the " camel-bird," and 
not unfitly, for it has the callous pads 
with which the camels support themselves 
when at rest ; it lies down in the same 
manner, and has the same power of cross- 
ing desert countries. It is ridden like a 
horse, sometimes by two men at a time, 
and its speed is greater than that of the 
horse. 

The cry is said to be like that of the 
lion. The two toes spread, and the spongy 
pads underneath render the same service 
as those of the camel. 

The third eyelid protects the eye from 
the heat and glare of the sun. The rapid 
pace enables the bird to get over long 
distances quickly, and it knows, by a 
sure instinct, when water is near. 

Though it is fond of the soft leaves 
and buds at the tops of the low trees 
found here and there in fertile spots, it 
will eat anything. The plumes we get 
are from the tail and wings, and are pure 
white. 



METHOD. 

If possible, get the suggestion of like- 
ness between the ostrich and camel from 
the class. Picture the anomaly of a bird 
that can be made to work, letting people 
ride him, and going in the direction they 
wish. The places where he is made use- 
ful, and where he lives, are such as few 
animals would choose, and he could 
leave them if he wished. Why does he 
not? 

What has he to make him comfort- 
able in the hot, bright noon, and what 
does he do when he is tired, and has 
no cool, green, shady place in which to 
rest? 

How would they know an ostrich if 
they should see one in a menagerie? If 
the description given fits any other bird 
as well, as for example the flamingo, or 
the ibis, or the rhea, the American species 
of the same family, tell them so, and let 
them add what will make it exclude all 
but the ostrich. 

When the lesson is over, let any sto- 
ries they may know of the ostrich be 
told. 



15 




Look at this curious 
bird ! Can it fly ? Can it 
run ? 

Is there anything that 
it can do with ease ? 

It has the warmest cov- 
ering of any bird ; where 
should you think it might 
live? 

Compare with it the 
duck, the goose, and the 
swan. 



The Penguin. 



TEACHEKS' NOTES. 

The penguin is an extreme develop- 
ment of a swimming bird. He seems to 
Uy under the water. 

The change of form and structure be- 
tween such a bird and the usual types is 
very curious. The feet are placed far 
bach, so as to throw the body into a 
nearly vertical position. The wings are 
mere flippers, useless on land, except in 
the slow crawling, but all-important in 
the sea. The nostrils are nearly closed 
by a naked membrane pervious to air. 

The body is flattened, and presents a 
broad surface for easy floating. 

Their food is small fishes, Crustacea, 
and other sea animals. 

These birds present a very singular 
appearance, on the edges of cliffs over- 
hanging the sea, standing, as they do, in 
solid rows, their white breasts making 
them look like a class of white-aproned 
children. 

The penguin is found only in the 
southern hemisphere. Its place is filled 
in the northern by the auk, a bird of the 
same family and of similar form. 



METHOD. 

Question why it can not fly, and 
whether, in walking, they think it would 
use two limbs or u go on all-fours." It 
does both. Boys feel proud when they 
can dive and remain a few seconds under 
water; these animals stay so long we 
should be sure they had drowned if they 
were children, and when they come up 
it is often at quite a distance from the 
place where they disappeared. 

They live in colonies, but there are 
some signs of bad government among 
them, for the stronger will steal from the 
weaker. 

What would the children think to 
come upon a place, much larger than 
the school-yard, where every inch of 
ground was covered with rows of these 
birds, standing nearly as high as thern- 
i selves.? 

The sound they make is like that of 
i a human being in distress. They feed 
their young by letting them take the food 
from their own mouths, having the power 
to bring it back again from the crop. 
Speak of the oiled feathers. 



16 




This is the crow, 
dressed all in black from 
head to foot. The black- 
birds, some of them with 
red under their wings, the 
bluejays, and the beau- 
tiful birds-of-paradise, are 
his cousins — many of them 
gayly dressed birds. 

Write how you know 
him, and what you know T 
about him. 



The Crow. 



teachers' notes. 

The crow is named as the type of all 
birds, uniting, as it does, more of their 
various qualities than any other. It soars 
in the air like the hawk. It feeds upon 
carrion like the vulture, and upon vege- 
table food like the ground-birds. It imi- 
tates like the parrot. It walks like the 
scratch ers, and is the type of the perehers. 

It is a mooted question whether it 
does more harm than good. The farmer 
often has to plant a field of corn three 
times, sometimes to abandon it, and plant 
it later with other seed. Yet the friends 
of the crow insist that the locusts and 
canker-worms come where the crow is 
banished, and do infinitely more harm. 

The cunning and mischievousness of 
crows are almost beyond belief. Yet they 
can be tamed, and they often become much 
attached to those who care for them. 

Among the birds their worst fault is 
that they rob nests of their eggs, and 
sometimes destroy young birds. 

They are migratory and gregarious. 

From their strong and direct flight 
comes the saying, " Go as the crow flies." 



METHOD. 

Begin by a little talk of the birds that 
go away for a season and return again, 
and of the different ways of going. Some 
quietly disappear, so that we only know 
it because we miss them, and some gather 
in companies, and spend a great deal of 
time in getting ready, then go in a colony. 
Among the latter are the crows. We 
know them by their black color, and by 
the u Caw ! caw ! " which we hear. 

The farmers are not fond of them. 
Let the children tell what farmers do to 
protect themselves from the crows. As 
an example of the cunning of the crow, 
tell how one will investigate, and, if it is 
found to be safe, will pass the word to a 
hundred near by, who, in ten minutes, 
will do all the mischief the farmer has 
been watching to prevent. 

They will fly in at windows, where 
rooms are being aired, if a bit of bright 
jewelry attracts them, and hide it in some 
hole in a tree. 

A flock of them have signals which all 
understand, and seem to be able to com- 
municate as well as if they could talk. 



17 




Is this a fish ? 

In what is it like the 
fish? 

Does it differ in any 
way? 

Is it of any use ? 

What other animal. does 
it resemble ? 

What have all these 
animals in place of the legs 
and wings of those that 
live on land ? 



Comparison of the Porpoise and a Fish. 



teachers' notes. 

The first apparent difference between 
the whale-like animals and the fishes is 
known by the touch. The Mood of the 
whales, dolphins, and porpoises is toarm ; 
that of fishes is cold. 

The examination of a fish shows 
movable plates on each side of the head, 
under which are fringes called gills. 
These are the lungs of the fish, taking 
the air that is found in water, or at least 
a part of the air that is also a part of 
water. 

The porpoise has no such parts, and 
no apparent means of "breathing under 
icater. This is why we see their heads 
so often, as we watch from the shore. 
Another difference is the position and use 
of the tail. In the fish it is vertical, and 
in these animals horizontal. The value 
of this is apparent. The fishes move 
mostly at about the same level in the 
water, and the motion of the tail is from 
side to side. The air-breathing swim- 
mers must be always coming up and 
going down in oblique directions, and 
so move their tails up and down. 



method. 

If the teacher can get a living gold- 
fish or perch, in a vessel of water, it 
will materially assist in the lesson. She 
will have no trouble in getting some 
kind of small fish from the market, and 
the picture will serve for the whale tribe. 

Porpoises are common along our 
shores. Though not more than four or 
fi ve feet long, they have a layer two inches 
deep of blubber, the use of which to them 
will be clear to every child who has prac- 
ticed bathing at the northern beaches. It 
is valuable to man for its oil. The skin 
makes one of the strongest kinds of 
leather known. It is used for boots and 
shoes. 

In order to hold the written work to 
a comparison of the fish and porpoise, 
the teacher may write on the blackboard 
the beginnings of sentences. For ex- 
ample : " The porpoise is like a fish in 

" "He is unlike a fish in . . 

. . . ." As a further guide to the second 
point, she may direct that the blood be 
spoken of first, then the breathing, then 
the tail. 



18 




Where must we look to 
find the frog and the toad ? 

Tell how their ways and 
their forms are unlike 

What do you know of 
their early lives ? 

Did you ever see either 
of them eat? and do you 
know what makes them 
feel so cold ? 

How do you account 
for their long leaps ? 



The Frog and the Toad. 



teachers' notes. 

These creatures, with a few others 
less commonly known, are called amphib- 
ians, from their double life. Their ex- 
istence begins in the form of tadpoles. 
They have, in this state, no limbs, but a 
long tail is the means of locomotion, and 
they breathe by means of gills, as fishes do. 
After a while the four legs appear, and 
the gills are soon lost, their place being 
taken by internal lungs. The naked skin 
is kept in a moist condition, and does a 
part of the work commonly done by lungs, 
or in water by gills. 

The frogs differ from the toads in 
having teeth on both jaws and on the 
palate, and in having webbed feet. 

Toads have a warty skin. 

The two species are alike in having 
very long hind legs for leaping, and very 
human-looking arms and hands. 

The backs have a shelving form, like a 
low roof. Their eyes are very promi- 
nent, and the mouth wide. The tongue 
is folded in the mouth, and covered with 
a sticky fluid. They hibernate in winter, 
and seem to be dead. 



METHOD. 

The best description may perhaps bo 
obtained by comparing these two species 
with each other, to learn how to know 
them apart. It is perfectly practicable 
to have the living species in the room at 
the time of the lesson. 

The cold blood and peculiar res- 
piration must account for their abili- 
ty to live with very little air; though 
under such circumstances there is no 
growth. 

The way they call and answer shows 
that they have good hearing and some 
intelligence. Let the fact call forth this 
inference from the class. 

Knowledge of the use of their "great 
eyes" in finding the shoals of small in- 
sects, the swimming in among them, and 
thrusting out the tongue, the sticky fluid 
of which takes great numbers, will impel 
the boys to watch instead of pelting 
them. 

The food of the toad in gardens 
is what the farmer is very willing to 
spare. He sometimes keeps one in his 
hot-bed. 



19 




In what are all these lit- 
tle creatures alike ? 

Each kind has a differ- 
ent name, but there is one 
which belongs to them all. 
See if you can find what it 
means. Name the sounds 
/ made by the different ones. 

Some are very beautiful, 
some are useful, and some 
are troublesome and harm- 
ful. 



Insects. 



TEACHEES 1 NOTES. 

Under a great variety of minor pecu- 
liarities, insects, for the most part, agree 
in having the body in three parts — head, 
Ghest or thorax, and abdomen. 

The head has usually three pairs of 
jointed appendages, of which the first are 
feelers. 

All true insects have three pairs of 
jointed legs attached to the thorax, and 
usually two or four wings. 

The digestive organs are in the abdo- 
men. 

The mouth has two principal forms, 
one for chewing, the other for sucking. 
The wasp, hornet, and bee combine both. 

The heads of most insects only move 
as the body moves; but they are fur- 
nished with very wonderful eyes, in 
which a great number are united in one, 
giving vision in all directions. Besides 
these, many insects have three simple eyes 
in the forehead. 

Beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, ants, j 
wasps, bees, moths, butterflies, and com- ! 
mon flies, are among the most common 
insects. 



METHOD. 

Begin with the grasshopper, and get 
a description of the legs ; then see if the 
same general character prevails among 
the other species. 

The wings vary more ; some of them 
may be described in simple words, as 
straight wings in the grasshopper, scale 
wings for the moths and butterflies, and 
sheath wings for the beetles. Let the 
body be next studied, to see to what part 
legs and wings are attached. 

The bee and beetle may be contrasted, 
in the kind of food, and the manner of 
taking it. 

The children will be amazed to learn 
that the spider is not an insect. The 
difference that will be most apparent to 
them is the eight or ten legs, and the dif- 
ferent kind of covering. Tell them of 
the centipede and the scorpion, as of the 
same class. 

The fly makes a buzzing sound ; the 
bee and mosquito hum ; the grasshopper 
and cricket chirp ; and the katydid talks. 
Most of these sounds are made by the 
rubbing of the thighs. 



: ^13 




20 

How doth the little busy bee 
Improve each shining hour, 

And gather honey all the day 
From every opening flower ! 

How skillfully she builds her 
cell, 
How neat she spreads her 
wax ; 
And labors hard to store it well 
With the sweet food she 
makes ! 



The Honey-Bee. 



TEACHERS NOTES. 



In order to know about the bees, we 
must study them in their homes, which 
are either natural or artificial hives. 
They may as truly be called domestic 
animals as the cow or horse, so entire- 
ly are they brought into the service of 
man. 

In the hive are three kinds of bees : 
the female, the male or drone, and the 
worker. 

One of the females is the queen. She 
lays all the eggs, and so is mother to the 
young bees. 

The workers gather the sweet nectar, 
or flower-honey, pollen, or powder, and 
something from buds called propolis. The 
propolis is used to fill the crevices of the 
cells, and for repairs. 

The wax forms in scales on the lower 
part of the abdomen of the workers, and 
is rubbed off" by their legs. This makes 
the cells, and shuts out the light if the 
hive is of glass and open. 

The cells are all alike, except those 
used for hatching, and are hexagonal, or 
six-sided, in form. 



The queen-mother lays a great many 
eggs. Of these, the most become workers, 
quite a number drones, and one or two 
queens. These young queens, when they 
come to be of age, are very troublesome 
to the old one, and she collects a swarm 
and goes to a new place. Some of the 
other qUeens follow her example, and the 
young ones are left. These have a battle, 
till one gains the victory, and after this 
there is perfect harmony and good gov- 
ernment. 

If empty hives are placed near the 
old one at the time the colonies leave it, 
the new swarms will generally take them. 
The inclosure for the hives is called an 
apiary. 

A hive of bees will make more honey 
than they need ; and they suffer no loss 
if a part is taken for the use of people. 
In such cases food is provided in winter, 
to prevent them from eating the sum- 
mer store, as they would do in a wild 
state. Tell this, so far as is needful, 
in simple language, and question for the 
writing. 



THE STUDY OF PLANTS. 

Introduction to Number Three. 

The systematic study of plants is of necessity difficult. So many 
new words meet the learner at the very threshold, that he is likely to 
miss for some time really seeing the plants. 

While believing most heartily in the study as a branch of early educa- 
tion, the author deprecates such lessons as teach first that a plant has 
root, stem, and leaves, which adds nothing to the knowledge of an ordi- 
nary child ; or, that leaves may be serrate, dentate, crenate, etc., which, 
though pleasantly illustrated at the time, are subsequently held in the 
mind by repetition till the ideas detach themselves from their real center, 
and are dead weights to the memory. 

The language lessons that follow claim nothing as a system of botanic 
studies. They are occasions for getting, in all natural ways that the 
teacher may command, into real though slight acquaintance with flowers 
and fruit-bearing plants ; they are a preparation for pursuing with interest 
afterward such studies as those of Professor Gray, Miss Youmans, and 
others; just as our children learn to write before. studying penmanship. 

The lessons will be found to be more subjective than those upon ani- 
mals. It is the relation of flowers to people that gives them their real 
charm. Children's own experience — finding, gathering, and giving them ; 
the care of them, modes of arranging, and all that makes up their personal 
delight in them, with the fanciful, poetic, and symbolic meanings attached 
to them — are fitting subjects for thought and feeling, and admirably 
adapted to language-culture. 

In carrying out the plan, the teacher may give herself the widest range; 
satisfied if only she is refining and elevating her pupils in thought and 
feeling, and securing appropriate language. 

Whatever is within the grasp of the children in poems of flowers or 
fruits, should be read to them, and, if possible, taught them. 

" The Daisy," by James Montgomery, " Daffy-down Dilly," and others 
like them, are expressions of the way that flowers appeal to our moral 
natures, as do animals by their traits. 





ankm'oxe 



Which of the early wild flowers are most beautiful? — 
most fragrant ? — most common ? Where may each be found, 
and by what do you know it when you see it ? 

The Spring Wild Flowers. 

TEAOHEES' NOTES. 



1. The Anem'one. It is called the 
Wind-flower, perhaps from its pretty 
way of nodding its head in the wind. 
Each flower is borne on a separate thread- 
like stem, and has but a single set of 
flower-leaves. These are white, tinted 
at the tip with pink or purple. There 
was a pretty fancy that the flower was 
pink, but that something happened to the 
goddess from whom it was named, and 
that it turned pale. 

The edge of the leaf is deeply cut, fine 
and very pretty. 

The Hepat'ioa is like the anemone in 
form. Three leaves upon the flower-stem 
seem at first like a flower-cup, but they 
are below the flower, and form no part 
of it. The leaves are evergreen, and the 
tufts of bright blue flowers rising from 
the old foliage, and soon followed by the 
new woolly leaves, are favorites wherever 
they grow. 

Bloodroot, a pure white flower, 
whose root has a red juice, grows in rich 
woods, and blossoms at about the same 
time ; and in the fields the delicate little 
4 



Bluets, blue-white, or white, with 
yellow eyes and tube-shaped centers. 

Teailing Arbu'tus is called, wherever 
it is found, the mayflower. It was the 
first seen by the Pilgrims when they 
landed at Plymouth Rock. It has a 
woody stem, thick green leaves, and clus- 
ters of pink and white flowers of rare 
beauty and sweetness. 

But best known of all is the 

Violet. Blue, purple, lavender, yel- 
low, and white ones may be found. Some 
of the varieties are large and showy, like 
the marsh and bird's-foot, and others 
small and fragrant. The marsh violets 
have longer stems and grow thickly, 
making the meadows blue. 

The parts of the flower-crown are not 
alike, as in the other flowers. The lower 
one has a hollow spur. There are five 
in all. Cultivated violets are double and 
very sweet. The leaf is smooth and glossy. 

Dog - Tooth Violets, or adder's 
tongue, are not violets, but yellow lilies, 
with long, pointed, parallel-veined, and 
spotted leaves. 





THE CROCUts. 



THE LILT OF THE VALLEY. 



Write below what flowers come first in the gardens, and 
what their colors are ; whether or not they are fragrant, and 
why we are so glad to see them. 

First Garden Flowers. 

TEACHEKS' NOTES. 



The Snowdrop. Before the spring 
violets, before any of the wild flowers, 
comes the little snowdrop ; often met by 
a fall of snow which, delicate as it looks, 
it very little minds. Each shoot rises to 
about four inches, and from it hangs a 
lily-like flower, its three outer petals 
white, and three inner ones just penciled 
with pale green; and with a delicate, 
pleasant perfume. The plant grows from 
a bulb, which may be taken up when it 
it has done flowering till October, or may 
be left in the ground all summer. It is 
so pretty and so easily raised, it is a 
wonder it is not more common. Next 
comes 

The Crocus, purple, yellow, or white, 
with pencilings of other shades of color. 
The flowers do not open wide, but the 
yellow centers make long shafts that bring 
them to the edge of the flower-leaves. 

Like the most of these early flowers, 
the leaves are not very noticeable. Com- 
ing so early, the flowers make a kind of 
almanac, telling us that spring has come. 

The Hyacinths, often seen with the 
crocus in garden-beds, are usually such as 



have been kept growing in the house all 
the winter. They grow in clusters at the 
end and sides of a tall straight stem, and 
are very fragrant. Their colors are vio- 
let, pink, yellow, and white. 

The Tulips are the most showy of the 
early flowers. Two pale green leaves ap- 
pear as soon as the blades of green grass 
are seen, and between them soon follows 
the tall, straight stem bearing this erect, 
proud blossom. They are single and 
double, red, yellow, and white, or any 
imaginable combination of these colors, 
but have no fragrance. 

The Lilt of the Yalley is one of 
the last of these to appear, but it is pret- 
tiest of all, set around with its large paral- 
lel-veined smooth leaves. The flower- 
stalk rises six or eight inches, with its 
line of drooping, cup-shaped, pure white, 
and very sweet lilies with their scalloped 
edges turned outward. 

All these plants grow from bulbs that 
are planted in the autumn, and after they 
have blossomed they soon die down and 
are bulbs again, so making room for other 
plants. 




THE POPPY. 



WILD ROSE. 



FIELD DAISY. 



Gather every kind of flower that can be found, learn some- 
thing about each, and write it as if you were telling what you 
knew to a little brother or sister. 



Summer Wild Flowers. 



teachers' notes. 



The Dandelion, common as it is, is a 
beautiful study. Instead of being, as it 
appears, a single flower, it is a large col- 
lection of tiny florets ; the colored part 
of each a long yellow banner, and all 
wrapped around by a green sheath that 
closes at night till the delicate seeds are 
ripened, then opens wide and falls to 
let them appear for a little as a downy 
ball, soon to float away, the feathery 
down carrying them as a sail carries a 
boat. 

The leaves of the dandelion are long, 
with irregular edges. They have a bitter 
taste, and when young and tender are 
used as " greens " for the table. 

The Field Daisy, or Whiteweed, 
is another collection of blossoms. Only 
its outer row of florets have banners 
or rays, the inner ones being tube- 
shaped, yellow flowers closely pressed 
together. 

Buttercups have much more to tell 
children than " whether or not they love 
butter." The two sets of flower envel- 
opes are plainly shown, as well as sta- 
mens and pistils. 



The Wild Eose, Sweet Brier or Eg- 
lantine, is to be found along the edges of 
woods or fences. It is the ancestor of 
all the roses. The double sets of flower- 
leaves appear each in five parts. The 
color is a beautiful pink, and both flowers 
and leaves are fragrant. The latter grow 
from the sides as well as ends of their 
stems. 

The Poppy, half wild, may be de- 
scribed from the picture. 

The Columbine is one of the prettiest 
of early summer flowers. It is found 
clinging to banks or rocky ledges ; its red 
petals each pointing downward as the 
flowers hang, but with a long spur or 
horn at the top, and the sepals, or parts 
of the outer flower-cup, of the same col- 
or, and folded down between the petals. 
The flowers contain honey, and are much 
sought by the bees. 

The descriptions mean little or noth- 
ing without the flower, or a picture that 
shows its parts. The number given af- 
fords means of selecting such as are to 
be had. Others not mentioned may take 
their places if more easily obtained. 




A DOUBLE ROSE. 




If you do not know this lily or rose, study those that grow 
where you live, and write the things about them that you 
wish to remember. 



Roses and Lilies. 

teaches' notes. 



Next comes the summer, and with it 
the Eoses. What kinds will we choose 
for our gardens ? for not even in an ima- 
ginary garden could we have all the hun- 
dreds of varieties that have come from 
the pretty pink wild rose. 

Of the old-fashioned roses in country 
gardens, growing almost wild, we have the 
large Red Rose, low, spreading rapidly, and 
not very double ; and the pink Cinnamon 
Rose with small, crushed petals and sweet 
scent. For climbing roses we have the 
Multiflora, coming early, small and deep 
red, and, as its name denotes, full of 
blossoms ; or the thick double pink Prai- 
rie Rose, very showy but without fra- 
grance. 

The Scotch Rose, pure white, yellow 
or pink, is very small but sweet, with a 
foliage of fine dark green leaves, and later 
in summer pretty pods or hips. 

Of less hardy kinds we have Monthly 
Roses in all colors, some of them prettier 
in half-open buds than in blossoms. The 
Tea Roses are so named from their pecu- 
liar fragrance, and Moss Roses from the 
covering on sepals and stem. 



The- Lilies vary even more. The 
beautiful little Lily of the Valley and the 
Dog- Tooth Violet have been described. 
. The Day Lily, a low plant having 
large, smooth leaves, with very marked 
parallel veins, and growing from the 
center a bunch of beautiful white lilies, is 
common in gardens. 

Tall Lilies, like the one of the lesson, 
in white, yellow, deep red, and mixed 
colors, and upright or nodding, are 
found in cultivated varieties and also 
wild. 

The Water Lily stands all by itself. 
It has a number of bright stamens and 
pure white petals set in regular rows, and 
it floats on the surface of the water, held 
by its long, strong stem to the roots be- 
low. Added to this its very delicate but 
marked fragrance makes it a favorite 
flower. 

The Galla, or house-lily, is not a lily, 
but a palm, with its single white flower- 
leaf folded around a long spike covered 
with small yellow florets, and often fall- 
ing over its head. The leaf is a green 
roll as it first appears. 




MIGNONETTE. 



CHINA PINK. 



Why do you like these flowers ? Name others that are fra- 
grant. Describe the pansy and the pink, and any others yon 
may know. 

Fragrant Flowers. 

TEACHEES' NOTES. 



Every garden should have its bed of 
Pansies. Comparison with the bright 
little Lady's Delight, or tricolored violet, 
shows how much may result from careful 
culture. The best varieties are obtained 
either from cuttings or seeds from flo- 
rists 1 plants, as they soon slip back again 
into the original kind if left to themselves. 
Pansies are found in a great variety of I 
colors. In a hundred there need be no 
two exactly alike. The word comes from 
one meaning thoughts, and it almost ■ 
seems as if a bed of pansies lifted real ! 
thinking, if not speaking, faces to those I 
who view them. Their fragrance is deli- 
cate but delightful, and their velvety pet- \ 
als surpass any woven tissue in smooth 
softness. 

Mignonette is another favorite on ac- 
count of its fragrance. The tiny flowers, 
whose greenish petals seem little broader 
than threads, and little more marked than 
the orange-colored stamens, grow in clus- 
ters or heads about the sides and tips of 
the leaf-stems. The fragrance, though it 
does not seem strong, soon fills a room, 
vet without loading the air. 



The Sweet Pea is valued both for its 
beauty and fragrance. It is a singular 
blossom. The petals seem really to make 
a flower-cover to the parts that are with- 
in. The outer and upper, called some- 
times the umbrella, gives protection to all 
the rest. Lifting this we find the two 
side ones folded around like wings, and 
the remaining one closely covering from 
below the working parts within. The 
colors are pink and white, purple, red, 
and variegated. It climbs like the gar- 
den pea, and forms a pod for seeds. 

Gaeden Pinks are also very fragrant, 
and they too have a form of their own 
for blossoming. Each petal has a long 
slender claw, held by the calix or flower- 
cup, and when open the blade of the pet- 
al bends outward at a right angle, making 
a nearly flat flower-crown. The June 
pinks are very double, and their outer 
edges are finely fringed. 

The Sweet Alysstjm, a small white 
flower, forming heads at the tips of all 
the stems, is one of the most common 
plants for borders, and for arranging with 
showier flow^ers in bouquets. 



6 





RHODODENDRON. 



Describe shrubs that bear flowers. Which would you 
choose for grounds that you could make as pretty as you liked ? 

Flowering Shrubs. 

TEACHERS 1 NOTES. 



Azaleas and Khododendrons are 
among the most gorgeous of garden shrubs. 
For masses of color, their great clusters, 
covering for the time almost the entire sur- 
face of the bush, are unequaled. In every 
tint and shade of color, save blue, varieties 
are found, and though large the flowers are 
delicate. The pictures do not indicate the 
relative size, both being more than two 
inches across in most of their varieties. 

The Pyrus Japonic a, or Japan Quince, 
is a large shrub, with bright-red blossoms 
growing all along the branches, and glossy- 
leaves. In some countries it bears a small 
fruit. 

Forstthia, a yellow flower on a tall, 
straight-stemmed shrub, before there is 
the least sign of leaves, is perhaps the ear- 
liest to appear. 

Spirea is a white flowering shrub of 
early summer, with fine, powdery-looking 
blossoms in advance of leaf foliage. 

The Flowering Almond bears pink 
and white thick blossoms all along its 
stems. 



The Lilao, common everywhere, is a 
tree-like shrub, bearing long, close clus- 
ters of lilac, or white blossoms, of sweet 
but heavy fragrance, and smooth, heart- 
shaped leaves. 

The String a, a tall bush, more 
spreading than the lilac, with five-pe- 
taled cream-white blossoms, is called 
Mock Orange from the fragrance of its 
flowers, and some resemblance which 
they bear to orange-blossoms. 

Another variety of syringa bears later 
in summer a pure white blossom which 
has no fragrance. 

Weigelia is coming to be common 
in town and city gardens. Its purplish 
and white blossoms are very pretty, and 
it is hardy. 

Althea, too, is a pretty shrub, its 
blossoms, like those of the hollyhock, 
looking like crumpled paper roses fast- 
ened close to its stems. 

There are many others, and any of 
these may be more minutely described in 
their appearance and habits. 




DRUMMOND PHLOX. 



Write about such seed-flowers as you would like to plant 
and care for in a box of earth or a garden-bed. 

Plants that grow from Seed. 

teachers' notes. 



Morning Glory, Convolvulus, Nastur- 
tium, Asters, Balsams, Petunia, Phlox, 
and many more are quite sure to do well 
if the ground is good, and they have 
plenty of sun and water. 

Verbenas are among the most desir- 
able of summer and autumn flowers. 
A few plants will soon spread so as to 
cover a large space. Their stems lie flat 
on the ground, and roots strike down 
from joints of leaves, forming new plants. 
The flowers are in flat, close clusters, or 
flower-heads, and they may be cut all the 
season through, and will blossom the bet- 
ter for it. Their colors are very varied. 

The Mornino Glory should be planted 
along the fences of the vegetable garden, 
and among peas, beans, and grape-vines. 

A bed of Petunias is very beautiful. 
The flowers are single in the common 
variety. The corolla is not divided into 
petals, but entire or whole. The colors 
are pink, rose, rose-purple, white, and 
rose-color and white mixed. It is not a 
pretty flower to cut, and the leaf is coarse. 



Drummond Phlox is showy and at 
the same time delicate. It grows from 
twelve to fifteen inches high, and its 
blossoms are in clusters. Each is flat and 
round at the top, and the center is a tube. 
Many of them are of deep crimson with 
white centers ; some have white stars. 
They remain till the frost comes, and may 
be cut like the verbenas. 

Balsams are bright pink and white 
soft blossoms, growing along the sides of 
their leaf-stems under the leaves. The 
double ones are exceedingly pretty. They 
have no length of stem, and so are not 
much used for bouquets. They are best 
arranged in a plate with a setting of dark- 
green fine leaves. 

The Nasturtium is one of the choicest 
of the yellow flowers. It is a good flower 
for a bank or rockery. Its petals are ir- 
regular, and its colors varied in yellows 
and orange-browns. 

There are very many more of the an- 
nuals that deserve notice if space al- 
lowed. 



8 





CHINA ASTER. 



GLAD'lOLtrS. 



In what respects do late flowers differ from earlier ones ? 
Describe any that you think beautiful. 



Autumn Foliage. 



TEACHEES' NOTES. 



The autumn flowers are noticeable for 
their deep colors, and often for their thick- 
er flower leaves and stems. The leaves of 
some seem like paper, as in Everlasting 
and Immortelles ; all of them keep longer 
in the house, and hear sun and drought 
better than earlier flowers. As the com- 
ing of the snowdrop and the violets an- 
nounces the spring, the frost that kills the 
late flowers foretells the winter. 

The Astees and Zinnias, ray-flowers, 
planted as seeds in the spring, are very 
beautiful now. The double varieties, in 
pink, violet, and white, take the places of 
the verbenas and pansies, though these 
can be kept almost as long by covering 
them at night. 

Dahlias are tall, elegant plants, with 
very regular flowers. They are prettier 
in the garden than in the room, but are 
used for large bouquets. 

Salvia, or the Red-flannel Flower, is 
very showy. Its petals look like pointed 
bits of scarlet flannel threaded on a stout 
string. 



Glad'ioli are produced in almost all 
flower colors, and are often very brilliant. 
They grow without stems all around a 
flower-stalk. The corolla is in six points 
at its edge, three of them rolled back 
making an upper lip, and the others fall- 
ing outward or downward. 

Foliage plants,, like the Coleus 
and the so-called " Dusty Miller," in 
their many varieties, are much used for 
flower-gardens, and make very effective 
groups. 

Quite as beautiful as the flowers, and 
attracting more attention, are the autumn 
leaves. Some, like the sumach, begin 
quite early to turn from green to bright 
deep red, the maple-teees and wood- 
bines become brilliant, and soon all the 
trees, except the evergreens, change to 
yellow, orange-red, or brown, and all the 
colors are beautiful in their places, soft- 
ening and relieving each other by their 
combinations. The ferns and bushes 
change too, so that all nature is in differ- 
ent dress. 



9 




HELIOTROPE 



Where must house-plants be kept, and what care do they 
require ? Would you like to be a florist ? 



House-Plants. 



TEACHERS' NOTES. 



There are few prettier ornaments to 
a room than thrifty flowering plants, par- 
ticularly when the frosts have killed the 
garden flowers. 

Teachers may do much toward in- 
creasing the love for them, and introdu- 
cing them where they would be a comfort 
and blessing. 

The houses of glass built by the florists, 
and the care they take, show by their re- 
sults that most plants from whatever 
climate will do well with light, warmth, 
and moisture. Yet each may be studied, 
as each individual among people, for its 
special aptitudes. 

The range of plants is now so large 
that only the most universal can be treat- 
ed by the teacher in any single class. 
The general care, the troubles to avoid, 
and the helps to special success, belong to 
the particular species, and can not be pro- 
vided for here. Geraniums are among 
the commonest, and at the same time 
most desirable. Their variegated or va- 
riously edged leaves, their clusters of 



bright blossoms, always in accord with 
the color of the dense foliage, give them 
place everywhere. 

Fuchsias, too, are never too common 
to be enjoyed. They are sometimes called 
Lady's Eardrops — it is easy to see why. 
Oxalis, Lantana, Cactus, Arbutelon, Lo- 
belia, are all special in some way. Heli- 
otrope is of interest from its fragrance 
and its delicacy of flower, though its leaf 
has no attraction. 

In ending the study of flowers, some 
general statements of the office of parts 
(omitted when parts were first named, 
that they might grow naturally into 
children's knowledge) may be appropri- 
ate. 

Every child should know by heart the 
verses on " The Use of Flowers," by 
Mary Howitt : 

" God might have bade the earth bring forth 
Enough for great and small ; 
The oak-tree and the cedar-tree 
Without a flower at all." 



10 





HUCKLEBERRY. 



BLACKBERRY. 



Did you ever pick berries ? Tell where the huckleberry 
grows aud how. What makes it hard to pick blackberries. 



Wild Berries. 



TEAOHEES' NOTES. 



The Whortleberry, or Huckleberry, 
grows on high bushes in marshy places, 
or on the edges of woods. In the spring 
we find the greenish-white clusters of 
blossoms, purse-shaped, and their edges 
tinged with red. The fruit is ripe in 
summer. It is a round, black, glossy ber- 
ry, having a skin inclosing a juicy pulp, 
and a number of hard seeds. 

The blueberry is covered with a fine 
downy bloom, like that of the grape. It 
is sweeter, has fewer seeds, and so is more 
juicy than the huckleberry. 

Both have low varieties of bushes, 
the dwarf huckleberry growing in open 
pastures and on hillsides. Its fruit is 
dry and insipid, but much picked by chil- 
dren. 

The low-bushed blueberry is of light, 
bright blue color, and very sweet. It is 
found on mountain-sides and among bush- 
es, rising but ten or twelve inches from 
the ground. 

The Blackberey, sometimes called 
dewberry, that has a trailing stem, and 



grows in rocky or sandy pastures, is the 
first to ripen. The white spreading pet- 
als make a large blossom, and the fruit 
is like a cluster of berries around a whit- 
ish center. 

The High Blackberry grows every- 
where, along fences or thickets, has sharp 
prickles, rough leaves, and blossoms in 
clusters. The fruit is oblong, larger than 
that of the low blackberry, and with more 
of the small berries in each head. 

The Partridge-berry is prized for its 
pretty, creeping vine, with round leaves 
and a beautiful sweet-scented blossom, 
which afterward becomes a bright-red 
berry. The fruit ripens late and remains 
all winter, so that we sometimes see 
flowers and last year's berries on the vine 
at the same time. 

The Elder-berry grows on a soft- 
stemmed shrub, four or five feet high. 
Its white blossoms are in clusters form- 
ing a large flat head. The black-purple 
fruit is used for making wine, said to be 
good as a medicine. 



11 




RA8PBEEKY. 



(J008EBERKY. 



Name and describe the garden berries. Tell which grow 
on climbing vines, which on bushes, and which on low plants ? 



Cultivated Berries. 



TEACHERS NOTES. 



The Raspberry, found growing wild, 
and common where woods have been 
burned, is improved greatly under culti- 
vation. Like the blackberry, the fruit is 
a collection of berries rather than a sin- 
gle one, but, unlike the blackberry, all 
these separate, when ripe, from the cen- 
ter around which they grew and cling 
.together, leaving the center hollow. The 
fruit is sweet and very agreeable. 

The Strawberry, when wild, is a 
small, sweet fruit, quite unlike ordinary 
berries. The part that formed the centerin 
the blackberry and raspberry is the fruit 
in the strawberry, and on its surface are 
the yellow seeds. Under cultivation, the 
fruit loses in a measure its sweetness and 
peculiar flavor, but grows much larger. 

The strawberry is easily cultivated, 
and, coming before the others, is greatly 
prized. 

The Currant is found in every vege- 
table garden ; the bright scarlet berries 
hanging in beautiful long clusters from 
the sides of a stem on a slender bush 



about four feet in height. The berries 
are of a sharp acid taste, and are used 
for jellies and wine. 

The Gooseberry is of a dull purplish 
color, and larger than the currant. 

The Cranberry is known by every 
one, as it is found for sale in the markets ; 
but few know how very beautiful and in- 
teresting the meadow cranberry is when 
growing. Its delicate stem and leaves 
seem insufficient to support the heavy 
berry that turns red, first on one cheek, 
then on the other, and lastly all over. 

There is language-culture, as well as 
beauty, in these verses by an English 
lover of nature : 

" 'Tis such a wee, fair, dainty thing, 
You'd think a greenhouse warm 
Would be its proper dwelling-place, 
Kept close from wind and storm. 

" But on the moor it dwelleth free, 
Like a fearless mountain child, 
With a rosy cheek and a lightsome look, 
And a spirit strong and wild." 



12 





aspabagtjs — (root, flower, shoot, 
native sprig). 



Describe the bean and the pea. What part of these 
plants do people eat ? Describe also the asparagus. 

Summer Vegetables. 

TEACHEKS' NOTES. 



The Pea is one of the first products 
of the vegetable garden. The vine is del- 
icate, of light-green color, and its curling 
tendrils hold it to the strings or fine 
brush that are set for its support. The 
white blossoms, which have been de- 
scribed in the sweet pea, grow into long, 
round pods, which open like a box on its 
hinges, and show from four to seven 
round seeds. They are used almost as 
soon as they form for green peas, and by 
being planted at intervals furnish a sup- 
ply to the table till late summer. When 
dry they are used for soups. 

The Bean is also a climbing vine, 
though some varieties are low. It has 
no tendrils like the pea, but twines 
around a pole or other support. The 
blossoms are of purplish color, except in 
the scarlet-runner, which is cultivated 
chiefly for its flowers. The pod is longer 
than that of the pea, and in many species 
flattened, as are also the seeds within. 

Some kinds of bean are used for the 
table as soon as the pods form, under the 
name "string-beans." 



The Asparagus is coming to be a 
common spring vegetable. The part that 
is used is the tender shoot when it first 
springs from the ground. The heads look 
like overlapping scales. If left to grow, the 
plant sends out branches with fine feath- 
ery foliage of dark-green color, greenish- 
yellow flowers, and small red berries. 

Lettuce is another of the early gar-, 
den plants. Its leaves fold around, form- 
ing a close head. The inner ones are of 
pale-yellow color and very much crum- 
pled. When fresh, they are very delicate, 
and are used as a salad. 

Cabbage is also used when its leaves 
form a head. The plant lives two years, 
and in the second forms flowers and seed. 

Cauliflower is raised for its flower- 
heads, which contain nourishment. It is 
much used in the form of pickles. 

Rhubarb has a' thick stem, which 
when sliced and cooked is used for sauce 
and pies. 

In this collection, we have the flowers, 
the leaves, the stems, and the seeds of 
plants used for food. 



13 





Describe these fruits and vegetables, and tell for what they 
are used. Write something about the orange and lemon. 

Larger Berries and Fleshy Roots. 

TEACHEBS' NOTES. 



The Tomato is a red or yellow berry, 
having a thin but tough outer skin, a 
juicy pulp, and seeds. The pulp forms 
divisions which inclose clusters of seeds. 
In consistency it is not unlike the Or- 
ange and Lemon, which are also berries 
with a tougher skin. There are four 
special varieties. 

The Okange has its pulp in from 
eight to twelve sections, which may be 
separated without breaking their walls. 
Within these sections the mass is made 
up of little sacs or cells, containing the 
juice. The whole is covered with a dense 
white wrapping, on the outer surface of 
which is the yellow peel. 

The Lemon is made up of sections, 
whose walls adhere. The rind or peel is 
tougher than that of the orange, and the 
juice is very acid. 

Oranges are used for desserts un- 
cooked — Lemons mostly for the flavor of 
their juice. The tomato is eaten raw 
with vinegar, but more often cooked. — 
Great quantities are preserved in sealed 
cans, for winter use. 



The Beet is valued for its fleshy 
root. To the plant the root is the 
store of nourishment laid up in its first 
summer for the growth of the flowers 
and seeds of the second, at the end of 
which its life is over, except as it con- 
tinues in the seed. A few plants are 
left to grow seeds, but the most are 
taken for the table after the first year's 
growth. 

The color is bright but deep red. 
When young they are tender and delicate, 
and later they are used with vinegar as 
pickles. 

The root is round, with a smaller ta- 
pering root running deep, or like the pic- 
ture. All around it are fibers, which are 
the real roots of the plant. 

The Tuenip is a white, fleshy root of 
flattened form and stronger flavor. It 
is a biennial like the beet, as is also 

The Radish, which is long, taper- 
ing, deep red on the outside and pure 
white within, with a hot, biting taste. 
When young and crisp it is much liked. 

One variety has the round root. 



14 




CUCUMBER. 



Tell how cucumbers, squashes, and melons grow, and how 
each fruit is used. 



Melons, Cucumbers, and Squashes. 



TEACHERS 7 NOTES. 



The Cucumber is an oblong fruit, used 
most when green. It grows upon a trail- 
ing, running vine, whose flowers are deep 
yellow. In some countries the yellow 
ripe fruit is used, but while it is eaten in 
this country by some it is commonly pre- 
ferred green. When half-grown, it is 
gathered for pickles under the name 
" gherkin." 

The Melon is a delicious fruit with a 
hard rind. Its varieties are the canta- 
loupe, the nutmeg, the green citron, and 
the watermelon. 

Some of these have the outer surface 
broken in a net-like way, some have deep 
furrows or creases running from stem to 
eye, and some are perfectly smooth. 

The pulp is of greenish color and very 
sweet. It is eaten by itself or with salt, 
and sometimes pepper or ginger, for des- 
sert. Melons only grow in a good, light 
soil, with plenty of warmth and sunshine. 
In colder climates sunny banks are chosen 
for them. When fully ripe they are 
are among the choicest fruits. 



The Watermelon grows much larger 
than the others, with a smooth, dark- 
green or spotted rind, a red and white 
juicy pulp, and black seeds. 

The citron that is used in cake and 
sweetmeats is a kind of watermelon. 

The Squash and Pumpkin are plants 
of the same kind, though with different 
flavors. They grow to an immense size, 
and are kept for winter use. 

They are yellow throughout, with 
white seeds, are much used in cooking, 
and when abundantly grown given to 
cattle. 

One form, the orange gourd, is small, 
and when ripe closely resembles the 
orange. The rind of the gourds will hard- 
en when dried, and they are often used 
as vessels and drinking-cups in rural dis- 
tricts. Boys make Jack-a-lanterns of 
hollow pumpkins. 

All the fruits of this lesson are 
called gourds ; they differ from the ber- 
ries in the thicker pulp and the harder 
rind. 




SWEET POTATO. 



Where do we look to find, in these plants, the part we 
want to eat ? Describe each. 



The Potatoes. 

teachers' notes. 



The Potato has a place in all vege- 
table gardens. It is rather a low plant 
with a coarse leaf, but a pretty purple 
blossom. The fruit is a ball or berry, and 
is not used. The potato is cultivated for 
the fleshy tubers that form at the ends of 
the underground stems. Loosening the 
ground about the roots of the potato, 
we find that some of the stems have 
apparently lost their way, and, not get- 
ting up into the air and light, have 
not borne leaves and blossoms, but, in- 
stead, these fleshy masses that we call 
potatoes. 

They are hard and white, with an ir- 
regular form, and with dimples on the 
surface. If allowed to remain in the 
ground and kept from freezing, or if, as 
is usually the case, kept in cellars during 
the winter, each of the dimples is found 
to contain an eye or bud, which, nour- 
ished by the pulp of the potato-tuber, 
grows into a shoot which is a new plant, 
and if set in the ground will produce tu- 
bers. The tuber shrivels and is of no use 



for food after these shoots attain any 
size. The potato is as common a food 
as wheat bread and as wholesome. By 
scraping the pulp and adding water, the 
starch may be separated and shown. 

The Sweet Potato grows differently. 
The root is a large, fleshy tuber-root, 
which, while it lays up nourishment like 
the beet and turnip, also sends out trail- 
ing runners ; and these runners, resting 
on the ground, send down into it from 
any joint roots which at once thicken 
into tubers, so that from a single plant a 
great many are produced and used for 
food. 

Sweet potatoes are of yellow color, 
with a brownish skin. 

Their flowers are very pretty, with 
entire or whole corollas, like the morn- 
ing-glory, of purplish-red color. 

They grow abundantly in the Middle 
and Southern States, and are much valued 
for food, but can not be kept so well as 
the common potato, nor used in so great 
a variety of ways. 



16 






INDIAN CORN. 



BUCKWHEAT. 



Name the grains, tell how they grow, and for what each is 
used. 



The Grains. 



TEACHERS NOTES. 



The Grains form the substantial part 
of vegetable food, in all but coldest cli- 
mates. 

In hot countries rice is the staple arti- 
cle, and wheat is our bread. Grains are 
like grasses in having jointed stems, gen- 
erally hollow. 

The hard seed, called a grain, is 
wrapped either singly, in twos or threes, 
or in a whole ear, like corn, in a hush. 
The seeds are the products of flowers, as 
in other plants, but the flowers have not 
petals and sepals; but when the seeds 
are formed they have wrappings of their 
own. 

Ears of all the grains, unless it should 
be rice, can be had at almost any time of 
year, so that the glumes can be opened 
and the descriptions made from actual 
observation and comparison. 

The straw of these grains is used for 
a large number of well-known pur- 
poses ; that of a kind of wheat grown in 
Italy for the fine Leghorn hats and bon- 
nets. 

Wheat has a long, thick ear, nearly 
four-sided. Its grains are free, and some 
species have the awn or heard. From it 



we have all our white or fine flour, and 
much of our starch. 

Barley, used in some countries for 
bread, is most used here for brewing beer. 

Oats have, instead of the clusters of 
seeds in a central spike, drooping spike- 
lets on fine long stems. Each spikelet 
has a twisted awn or beard. Oats are 
given to horses as their chief food, and 
oatmeal is much valued in a coarse form 
for the table. 

Rye is of darker color than wheat, 
growing in much the same way. It is 
used to make coarse or brown bread, and 
for fermentation for whisky. It can be 
raised on poor, sandy soil. 

Corn has its seeds attached to a cen- 
tral core or cob, wrapped in broad, thick 
husks, a part of its flowers hanging in a 
tassel, and others forming the ear. The 
grains are in eight or ten regular rows, 
and surrounded by the silk, the stems of 
the pistils very greatly lengthened. 

Buckwheat does not grow like the 
grains, but, being very like them in its 
seeds, is associated with them. It has 
white, sweet flowers, much visited by 
bees, and when in blossom is very pretty. 



17 





BEECHNUT. 



How do nuts differ from other kinds of fruit ? 
such as you know best. 

Nuts. 

teachers' notes. 



Describe 



The Nuts are the hardest of the fruits. 
They are found growing on bushes or 
trees. What we call nuts are not always 
properly so classified. 

The Peanut, or Ground-Nut, grows 
in pods, which are underground tubers. 
They are best when roasted or boiled. 
Oil is obtained from them. 

The Chestnut is a very pretty study. 
It grows upon one of the noblest of our 
forest trees, quite out of the reach of or- 
dinary harm, yet it is so carefully pro- 
tected that there is little danger of its 
being disturbed or injured till it is fully 
ripe, when at the first frost its husk or 
burr opens and it falls out ; or, later, husk 
and all may fall together. 

The outside of the burr is thickly set 
with prickly spines, but its inner surface 
is soft as velvet. The two or sometimes 
three chestnuts are laid together at their 
flat sides, and their round ones fit into 
depressions in the burr like choice jewels 
in a velvet case. The nut itself has a 
smooth, brown skin. It is roasted or 
boiled, but can be eaten raw. 

The Hiokoey-Nut, or shag-bark, is a 
good type of the nuts. Its meat has two 
5 



[ parts fitted into grooves in the shell, 
which though thin is hard. This is cov- 
ered by an outer husk, which divides on 
ripening into four sections, like flower- 
leaves. 

The nut is sweet and rich. 

The tree is tall, with long, drooping 
leaves in clusters. 

Beechnuts grow on a very beautiful 
tree. They are the small, sweet, three- 
sided nuts which we crack with our 
teeth. 

The Almond, usually numbered with 
the nuts, grows like the peach in many 
respects, only that when ripened the 
outer pulp dries and is useless, and the 
kernel of the stone is used. 

The Bitter Almond, one of the varie- 
ties, tastes like the kernel of a peach- 
stone. 

Acoens, the fruit of the oak, are "the 
squirrels' nuts." They are very beautiful 
in their forms — clusters of little, rough, 
scaly cups in all positions, holding long, 
rounded balls. 

The Hazel-Nut grows on high bushes, 
and is liked by children in the sections 
where it grows. 



18 





QUINCE. 



Describe an apple, pear, and quince. Tell how each grows, 
and what use is made of it. 



The Apple j Pear, and Quince. 



TEACHEKS NOTES, 



The Apple brings us to the fruit of 
trees, and orchards are almost as common 
as gardens. The apple-tree is low-branch- 
ing, rough barked, and often large. 

The blossom is pink and white, sweet- 
scented, and of great beauty. 

The varieties of apple are numerous, 
some ripening in early autumn or even 
summer, some late for winter use. 

The colors are red, bright, and dull; 
plain and streaked; yellow, deep, and 
pale ; russet-brown and golden ; and green. 

The general form is round, with a 
deep dimple at the stem, and the remain- 
ing dry leaves of the blossom opposite. 
Some varieties are lengthened between 
these two parts, and some shortened. 

In flavor we have sour, sweet, mild, 
spicy, tart, and bright. 

In pulp fine and coarse grain, juicy, 
dry, mellow, mealy, and crisp. 

The seeds are wrapped in a stiff, 
husk-like sac, which is joined by tough 
threads to the eye and dimple, forming a 
core. 

The Mango, in very hot countries, 



takes the place that the apple and peach 
do with us. It cuts like an apple, but 
has a stone. 

The Pear is in general character like 
the apple. The form varies in the dif- 
ferent varieties, some being much like the 
apple, and others greatly elongated, taper- 
ing from the middle toward the stem, and 
still others, like the one in the lesson, 
oval at the stem, then abruptly swelling 
toward the base. 

The colors are russet, yellow, and 
brown, with cheeks of red. 

The trees vary in the various kinds, 
and in different climates are differently 
trained. In cold, windy sections, they 
are sometimes trained by fastening to the 
sunny exposure of a building, and so 
made to look like vines. 

The Quince grows upon a large shrub. 
It is a great ornament to a garden from 
its fair, golden fruit, which is also very 
pleasantly fragrant. The fruit is often 
called the " golden apple." It is hard and 
but little used, except for preserves and 
jelly. 




How do these fruits differ from those on the last page ? 
Name other fruits that have stones. 



Stone-Fruits. 

teachers' notes. 



Cheeeies are the first to appear of the 
tree-fruits. They are smooth and round, 
and grow in small clusters on drooping 
stems. The colors are bright and pale 
red, deep red, or nearly black, according 
to the varieties. The pulp is soft and 
juicy, and bright, tart, or sweet in dif- 
ferent kinds. 

Within the pulp is a small round stone, 
which covers and holds the seed. 

The blossoms in early spring are pure 
white in large clusters, and, coming in 
advance of the leaves, robe the tree like 
a bride in white. Not every blossom can 
be counted for a cherry, the clusters of 
which seldom contain more than three or 
four. 

A wild black cherry is medicinal. 

Plums are generally, in cultivated va- 
rieties, larger than cherries. They have 
a delicious pulp inclosed in a purple, 
green, or yellow smooth skin, and within 
it a smooth stone. Some of the purple 
and green gages are of melting sweetness, 
and in the localities where they can be 
grown are greatly prized. They do not 



bear transportation, decaying very soon 
after ripening. 

The Peach is, taken for all in all, the 
most valued of the stone-fruits. It is the 
largest, in some of the species being equal 
in size to the average apple. No fruit is 
more beautiful. The velvety look given 
by the soft bloom, and the deep colors of 
the cheeks, shading from light to dark, 
make it a color-study for artists. 

The bloom has a "flannel " feel that 
is not agreeable, so that most persons rub 
it from the skin, or peel the peach before 
eating it. 

The pulp is white or deep yellow in 
the different kinds, and rich, sweet, and 
juicy — three elements which together re- 
alize one's idea of luscious. 

The fibers go from the rough stone to 
the surface, in some varieties clinging to 
the roughnesses of the stone. 

A line or crease around one side of 
the peach shows where it may be broken 
in two ; it follows the line of the shell, 
which is in two parts more or less closely 
joined, but parting without difficulty. 



20 




COCOANUT. 



Describe the flavor of these and other imported fruits, and 
learn something of their growth. 



Fruits of Hot Climates. 



teachers' notes 



The Cocoanut is the fruit of the 
cocoa-palm, a very tall, slender tree, with- 
out a branch. 

The foliage is a tuft of leaves eighteen 
or twenty feet long, under which are the 
clusters of fruit. 

There are from five to fifteen nuts in 
the cluster ; and clusters are brought to 
perfection at intervals of six weeks — a 
single tree bearing from eighty to one 
hundred fruits in a season. 

Every part of the tree is turned to ac- 
count: the leaves for thatching, for pa- 
per, fans, hats, etc. ; the young wood, 
when the soft center is removed, for 
water-pipes; the fibers of the husk for 
rope; and the fruit for its milk, pulp, and 
oil. 

The Date, the fruit of the date-palm, 
is the chief subsistence of the native peo- 
ple where it grows. It is borne in a 
great many large clusters, and when ripe 
is very luscious. The trees begin to bear 
when six or seven years old, and continue 
for much more than a person's lifetime, 
which, in a climate where hard work to 
obtain food would be a burden, is a great 
blessing. 



The Fig grows upon a low tree, not 
over twenty feet high. 

It is shaped somewhat like a pear, but 
the stem is so short that it can not droop. 

The pulp is soft and very sweet.. The 
colors in different kinds are bluish-black, 
purple, red, green, yellow, and white. 

Two crops a year are borne by the 
same tree. The fig-tree can be raised in 
cool climates, but it needs protection, and 
can mature but a single crop of inferior 
quality. 

The Pineapple grows upon a low 
plant, whose very stiff leaves are almost 
stemless. From the center a stem rises 
a little way, bearing a cluster of purple 
flowers, which unite in becoming the sin- 
gle, cone-like fruit, whose scaly surface 
represents their outer flower-leaves thick- 
ened. 

The Banana grows upon a tree three 
or four times the height of a man, with 
leaves drooping from its top to almost 
half its height. The fruit is oblong, fleshy, 
and covered with a smooth skin. The 
colors are deep red and pale yellow, and, 
as the fruits can be ripened apart from the 
tree, they are excelleot for exportation. 



STUDIES IN WORDS. 



Introduction to Number Four. 

A nice discrimination in the use of words lies at the foundation of 
mental power. The ear that " trieth words " is an educated one ; and 
the work of training, if slow, is sure. 

Two kinds of instruction claim the teacher's care : First, to extend 
and clear the sphere of words already in the vocabulary of the child ; and, 
second, to add new ones as symbols for ideas with which he either has 
been or is now made familiar. 

All terms, that is, words having picture-power as distinct from words 
of relation, have a more or less clearly-marked territory of meaning, the 
extent of which may be measurably determined by their usage. 

Something of this it comes within the child's province to know. 

The dictionary refers things, as signified by words, to classes, and 
defines classes in yet more abstract words. It was not made for children, 
and it serves them but poorly. What is wanted is an illustration which 
shall picture anew such circumstances as gave rise to the word. 

A man pursues a course which causes wrong, suffering, and loss to 
others. He is aware of the injury, and knows himself as the occasion, 
yet is entirely indifferent to all but his own ends. We call him a hard 
man. If " hard " must be explained, there can be no surer way, especially 
for a child, than to recount the circumstance which makes it appropriate. 
The narrow acceptation under which words are sometimes received by 
this method is no argument against it. The movement of mind is from 
the particular to the general, and the word will soon enough come to fit 
other people of similar nature. 

It is not possible to mark out the path for such teaching. Other 
studies, incidental and local interests, largely affect its subject-matter, 
and the previous and present life of the children its method. The lessons 
of the book, especially those telling "what kind," are in its line, showing 
its direction though not its extent. 



Object-lessons on qualities, if intelligently given, contribute materially 
to this culture. 

For example : A teacher makes successive experiments illustrating the 
various forms of burning, as shown by light shavings and other inflam- 
mable materials ; by phosphorus and some gases, dangerous from being 
so easily ignited ; and by powder as explosive. Coal burning slowly and 
strongly and the insensible rust of iron illustrate added elements of the 
same idea. Over each form of burning is set the appropriate expression, 
and combustion is made light, with the meaning of all. 

The analysis of such teaching shows three, or, at most, four stages : 

First. Clear showing of the existence of the quality by natural tests. 

Second. Variety of examples to detach it in thought from the things 
in which it resides. 

Third. Exercise in the use of the term, and last, if at all, a general 
definition. 

Again, a person by his acts calls attention to himself, and is made 
the subject of remark. Such epithets as bold, brave, courageous, daring, 
noble, etc., are applied, when desperate is the only one that belongs to 
him, as the teacher can show. 

No class of children will be insensible to such help from their teachers, 
and no item of teaching is more interesting. Later studies in literature 
reap to the full, and all studies to an extent, its benefits. 

An assortment of small spools of colored sewing-silks, or knots of 
worsted, with the miscellaneous collections for which they will become 
the nucleus, have power, through the addition of thought and language 
training, to elevate a child's nature as music does. And twelve hours of 
teaching will suffice for it. 

Words are the current coin of communication between minds. They 
have all the value of other moneys, and their possession by one makes no 
other a loser. We can afford to make our pupils rich with them. 



What kind ? 

We are to make collec- 
tions of words answering 
the question at the head of 
the lesson. It is what grown 
people call making a vocab- 
ulary. 

This lesson is upon 
Trees. Every kind of tree 
has something in which it 
differs from every other, 
and we call one an oak-tree, 
another an elm, and others 
beech, birch, etc. 

Even of the same kind, 
no two are exactly alike. 
One may be large, tall, high, etc., another small and low. If a 
tree is much smaller than others of its kind and age, it is de- 
scribed as dwarfed. 

Trees are grand, stately, and noble, and they are blasted, 
stunted, withered, and unshapely. A dead branch often makes 
a tree prettier in a picture, and we say it is picturesque. 

Some kinds of trees are bending, drooping, swaying, and 
graceful, while others are straight and st/rong. 

There are those that grow to their full height without a 
branch, and there are many that are low-branching or broad- 
branching. 

For use while standing a tree may be an ornamental, a shade, 
or a fruit tree ; it may be valuable or worthless to cut down. 

At different times of year a tree may be leafy, budding, 
blossoming, fruitful, full fruited, bare, or barren. 




NOTE. 



There are other words, but these will 
show you how to study the lessons that 
follow, and to write answers to the ques- 
tion What kind in each case. 

There is no space left in the book 
for writing about irees, but you may de- 
scribe a great many in spoken words, or 
in slate exercises. Read the lesson with 
the word tree after each italicized word ; 
for example, A large tree. Next read 



two that may be used for the same tree, 
then three, and each time think the pic- 
ture. Then make statements like the fol- 
lowing : 

" A young, thrifty shade-tree has been 
set in the place of one that was unshapely, 
blasted, and dying." 

" The palm is a tall, straight, branch- 
less tree." '* There is a robin's nest in 
the low-branching, old apple-tree." 



2 




Think of all the dif- 
ferent kinds of boys and 
girls that there might be, 
and find words to describe 
them in every particular. 

1. Size, form, style of 
dress, health, and appear- 
ance in general. 

2. Disposition, charac- 
ter, ways, and habits, as 
shown by feelings and acts. 
With a little help you 
may easily find a hundred 
words. Write as many as 
you have room for below. 



Kinds of Children. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 



Here are and side by 

side. Let us find words by which to de- 
scribe the size and form of each. 

How do they differ in complexion ? 

I went, in the early spring, to visit a 
boy who had been ill for months. Tell 
me how you think he looked and what 
was his condition. He went into the 
country soon after, and a few days ago I 
saw him again and hardly knew him he 
was so changed. Tell me about him now. 

A poor boy comes to the door to beg; 
how does he look ? what of his clothing ? 

Here is a picture of some boys and 
girls — a scrap-book collection of fashion- 
plates, old and new — what have you to 
say of their costumes? 

Picture striking instances of conduct, 
then ask what say you of the conduct and 
so of the boys or girls ? 

A boy who can is a 

boy. 

The teacher fills the first ellipses. 



Suppose yourself to be very tired, or 
busy, and a younger brother or sister 
claims your attention or care, and tell me 
how yon feel about it. 

If you conquer the feeling, and do as 
you are asked, what shall we say of you ? 
and what if you do not ? 

Picture circumstances not agreeable ; 
get expressions of their effect upon the 
feelings. Also the opposite circumstance 
of great joy or delight. 

How does having or not having things 
that money will buy make difference be- 
tween children ? 

How do their ways of using their pos- 
sessions, large or small, show their char- 
acters? Quote fine selections in prose or 
poetry showing character, and observe 
the words used. 

The above suggestions and questions 
show only how the thought may be chal- 
lenged. It is in the way of meeting it that 
the teacher does the real language-train- 
ing. It is a place for the exercise of her 
clearest, best powers. 



Begin by grouping a number of the words in the lists 
made in the last lesson, that are appropriate to a single per- 
son. Remember that while the same boy may be kind and 
thoughtful or careless and selfish under different circumstances, 
he is not both at the same time. 

Describe particular boys and girls that you may know. 

Examples : George Brown is a brave, honest, manly boy. 
My cousin Ned is a great, stout, clumsy, good-natured fellow, 
lazy and merry, but kind and true. 

I have a dear little sister. She is pale, slender, and delicate, 
but she seems well and happy. 

I do not like a sullen, sulky child, but I enjoy a roguish, 
jolly, noisy boy, if he is not cruel nor rude. 

The girls at Miss Blank's school are polite, agreeable, lady- 
like, and kind. 

Boys and Girls. 




Of what kinds may a 
|- house be with respect — 

1. To the material of 
which it is built ? 

2. To size, color, condi- 
tion, etc. ? 

3. To the plan of the 
building ? 

4. To its situation or lo- 
cation ? 

5. To beauty and expense? 



Kinds of Houses. 



On this page write descriptions of particular houses, either 
real or imaginary. Your own home, or a house in your neigh- 
borhood that all the class know, will be a good study. Make 
an account of one which shall have something said upon each 
one of the five points of the last lesson. State what kind of a 
house you would like. 

Example : I have in mind a house that I would like to 
own. It is a two-story, white, wooden house, with a Mansard 
roof and two bay windows. It is well located on high ground 
and very attractive, but not high-priced. I have not seen the 
inside, but am told that it is convenient and roomy. 

A House. 



6 




What of his size and figure — his 
manners and appearance, disposition, 
character, and habits? 

Find words, also, to tell his cir- 
cumstances and position in life. 

It will take every kind of man 
that you have known to make all 
the pictures. 

Write the words on this page, 
and descriptions of particular people 
on the next. 



A Man. 



Try to imagine people that others have described. 

" Fine, healthy, and jolly sailors, in their clean, white trousers and 
bine shirts." 

" The smith, a mighty man is he, with large and sinewy hands, 
And the mnscles of his brawny arms are strong as iron bands ; 
His hair is crisp and black and long, his face is like the tan ; 
He looks the whole world in the face, for he owes not any man." 

" I see the wealthy miller yet, his double chin, his portly size ; 
And who that knew him conld forget the busy wrinkles round his 

eyes % " 

Men that I haye known. 



8 

Write words to describe the weather. Find one for every 
kind of day, of any season of the year. 

Arrange the words in lines according to some plan, as for 
example : 

1. What the thermometer tells about the days — 

2. What an invalid says of some of them — 

3. What the sailor, who has his vessel to guide — 

4. What people, as they meet and make the customary re- 
marks — 

5. What boys and girls, who want to be out of doors, and 
are sometimes not well suited with the weather. 

Kinds of Weather. 



9 

Describe a spring, a summer, an autumn, and a winter day. 

What kind of weather makes a beautiful day — a depress- 
ing day — a stormy day — a drought ? 

What kind of a day was yesterday, or the day of last week, 
when some were kept at home ? 

Picture particular days when the events were regulated 
by the weather ; also days when the weather was doubtful 
till late, or changing in the different parts of the day. 

Tell some incident that caused you to remember or care 
about the weather. 

Do you know lines of poetry describing weather ? 

Special Days. 



Wise' 
Rash 
Rude 


Quiet 

Busy 

Jolly 


Firm 


Gentle 


Plain 
Proud 


Merry 
Harsh 



10 

Noble 

Trusty 

Clumsy 

Juicy 

Rustic 

Brutal 



Curious 

Cautious 

Patient 

Earnest 

Gloomy 

Serious 



Anxious 

Familiar 

Glorious 

Delicate 

Lonesome 

Violent 



Use each of the words above with whatever it will de- 
scribe. Write in columns the phrases that you make, think- 
ing the meaning. 

Example : A wise man. Wise counsel. The wise word. 

What? 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEAOHEBS. 



Get the word used, in each case, in as 
many ways as possible by the class before 
adding anything to their knowledge. It 
thus comes to be understood that it is 
when their wells are dry that deeper 
boring is resorted to. 

If the word in question is one of wide 
meaning, classify its uses as given by pu- 
pils. There is a difference between deli- 
cate as belonging to color, flavor, and per- 
fume, and delicate as used to describe the 
health of a person, the aptitudes of a plant, 
or the material or structure of an orna- 
ment. The children can appreciate this 
difference, and respond to natural ques- 
tions about it. " What do I mean when 
I say that the vase is delicate?" "It 
will not bear rough treatment." " What, 
when I say the color of the dress is deli- 
cate blue?" "It is not a deep or dark 
blue." When the time is ripe for it, make 
place, if possible, for finding the common 
ground of meaning. The answers of the 
pupils will show their capacities. If there 
is doubt whether a word is used intelli- 
gently, question not about it but the thing 
it assumes to characterize ; if another 
word is then found to be more appropri- 
ate, give it. It is thus that a word brings 



a companion, and the company is made 
larger. 

Give some usages less familiar to the 
children ; some among them will welcome 
them, and a class is somehow elevated by 
what its best members know. 

"He paid me a delicate compliment." 
Is this use of the word like that in " deli- 
cate odor," or in " delicate vase " ? What 
would be the opposite of delicate in case 
of the compliment? Tell what the com- 
pliment was, and show wherein its deli- 
cacy consisted. 

All words and usages must grow into 
and afterward in the mind ; and the teach- 
er's help must be given delicately ! 

Another use of the words is by com- 
bination for picture-making. For exam- 
ple : Which might describe food f which 
a house t a person ? a day ? a sunset ? 

Record in the books such usages as 
it may be wise to recall for purposes 
of review. It is not intended that all 
the work shall be written, nor that any 
considerable part of the written work 
shall be preserved in the oooks. One 
or two examples of the best work will 
recall the method of all, and facilitate 
oral reviews. 



r 



11 



A taste 
An odor 
A sound 
A feeling 
A pain 
A life 



Answer the question " What kind" of each thing named, 
and answer it in a number of ways ; then unite two or three 
answers into one. 

Example : A long, winding way. A warm, bright fire. 



Way 


Room 


Affair 


Appetite 


Time 


Nurse 


Brother 


Companion 


Year 


Idea 


Thought 


Material 


Dress 


House 


Neighbor 


Carriage 


Fire 


Walk 


Country 


Accident 


City 


Garden 


Voyage 


Face 



What kind ? 



12 

A bright spring day ... a happy, proud robin . . . pretty blue 
eggs . . . neat, little brown nest. 

Cruel boy . . . broken branch . . . ruined nest, broken eggs. 

Wild, fluttering robin . . . frightened boy, torn jacket . . . sad, 
grieved mother, sorry boy. 

These fragments joined, like beads upon a string, suggest 
a story. 

Try to unite two or three of such as you made in the last 
lesson, then go on, and you can outline stories of boys and 
girls that will be interesting. Perhaps you can recall in this 
form stories that you have read. 

Skeleton Stories. 



13 

Name the colors seen in the rainbow, or in sunlight falling 
through a prism of glass. 

Write these with the varieties of each, beginning with tints 
or light colors, and ending with shades or dark ones, and the 
hues which are made by blending colors or tingeing one with 
another. Name the varieties of black, white, brown, and 
drab. 

Make a collection of bits of silk, worsted, paper, etc., to 
illustrate the colors, and try at this time to fix in your mind 
each color with its name, that you may afterward be able to 
describe, in this respect, the beautiful things you may see. 

Colors. 



14 

Write the names of colors seen in the sky at sunset, those 
in the woods in autumn, in the sea, and those that might be 
used in furnishing and decorating a room. 

Describe special flowers, fruits, gems, etc., with respect to 
their coloring. 

Name colors that harmonize with each other, and others 
that hurt each other if placed side by side. Learn something 
of the way so many varieties are made in paints and dyeing 
materials. 

Try experiments with your paint boxes, and write the re- 
sults. 

Colors. 



15 



■ Tne „ most of tne lesson s have been answers to the ques- 
tions " What kind ? » and " What color ? " This one asks " How 
many ? " 

For want of a variety of expressions, children are apt to 
use very frequently the few that come most easily to mind. 

Make statements, using appropriately the following and 
see if you can add to the number : 

A good many . . . a f ew . . . several . . . many ... not 
any . . none at all ... a number ... all, a lot, ever so many 
- - .a dozen . . . pair . . . couple . . . brood . . . flock . . . 
shoal . . . swarm . . . school. 

How many? 



16 

This lesson is an amusement or game. The teacher asks, 
"How often?" and the scholars answer in turn with some 
statement, as for example: "I take a music-lesson twice a 
week " ; "I go often to the seashore." If any one has no an- 
swer, he says, " I do not know " ; and some one, either pupil or 
teacher, asks a question, such as, " Don't you know how often 
the clock strikes ? " to which he must answer in a statement. 

By taking care, a great variety of answers can be found. 
Let the part of the answer that tells " how often " be written, 
and, each time these expressions are used in review, let new 
statements be made. 

How often? 



17 

Everything that happens has some particular time, and, in 
telling the story of it, that is an item of interest. 

One of the ways of marking time is in its connection 
with the present, and we say now, to-day, yesterday, or next 
week. 

Another is by the almanac, or the seasons, as, " On the 10th 
of August," or "In the spring of 1876." 

Still another is in relation to one's own life, as, " When I 
was about five years old." 

You may find a great many, and they will suggest inci- 
dents, either true or imaginary, to relate. 

When? 



18 

It is not always desirable to tell the time exactly, and 
some of our best stories begin with " Once," or " Once upon a 
time," "Long ago," etc. 

Suppose your mother to be very much occupied, and there 
comes a call for her, what may she answer ? 

If you have some promised favor in mind, and ask when it 
is to be granted, what may be the response ? 

Collect as many expressions that mark time as you can 
find, and write the best of them in the page below. Make 
any one that is new to you your own by using it in your talks 
when at play. 

When? 



19 

We must also learn ways of locating or placing the events 
we talk about. It adds greatly to the interest of any new 
thing to know where it occurred. If some one should say, 
" In a house not far from here," you would wait with interest 
for what might follow. 

If you are telling a true story, name the actual place ; if 
you are making one, you may name a place in some connection 
with your home, or some place you have visited or had some 
knowledge of. 

Or it may be a place you describe, but do not name. Ob- 
serve, in the books you read, how the place is indicated. 

Where ? 



20 

Several of the expressions gathered may be used in the 
same story, especially such as tell time and place. Answer the 
questions when and where, and you have a story half made, for 
" Well begun is half done." In the next book you are to find 
stories in pictures again, and the work you have done here will 
help you. 

Example : " Once, when I was very young, and was visit- 
ing at my uncle's in Stowe, Vermont " Could you not go 

on and make a story ? 

There is not room for long stories on this last page, but 
you may make three or four different beginnings. 

When and where? 



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These Headers, while avoiding extremes and one-sided tendencies, combine into one 
harmonious whole the several results desirable to be attained in a series of school reading- 
books. These include good pictorial illustrations, a combination of the word and phonic 
methods, careful grading, drill on the peculiar combinations of letters that represent 
vowel-sounds, correct spelling, exercises well arranged for the pupil's preparation by 
himself (so that he shall learn the great lessons of self-help, self-dependence, the habit of 
application), exercises that develop a practical command of correct forms of expression, 
good literary taste, close critical power of thought, and ability to interpret the entire 
meaning of the language of others. 



THE AUTHORS. 

The high rank which the authors have attained in the educational field and their long 
and successful experience in practical school-work especially fit them for the preparation 
of text-books that will embody all the best elements of modern educative ideas. In the 
schools of St. Louis and Cleveland, over which two of them have long presided, the 
subject of reading has received more than usual attention, and with results that have 
established for them a wide reputation for superior elocutionary discipline and accom- 
plishments. Feeling the need of a series of reading-books harmonizing in all respects 
with the modes of instruction growing out of their long tentative work, they have care- 
fully prepared these volumes in the belief that the special features enumerated will com- 
mend them to practical teachers everywhere. 

Of Professor Bailey, Instructor of Elocution in Yale College, it is needless to speak, for 
he is known throughout the Union as being without a peer in his profession. His methods 
make natural, not mechanical readers. 

D. APPLETON & CO., 549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 



PRIMERS 

IN SCIENCE, HISTORY, AND LITERATURE. 

18mo. . . . Flexible cloth, 45 cents each. 



L— Edited by Professors HUXLEY, ROSCOE, and BALFOUR STEWART. 

SCIE3STCE IFIRIIMIEIRS- 

Chemistry H. E. Koscoe. ; Botany J. D. Hooker. 

Physics. Balfour Stewart. | Logic W. S. Jevons. 

Physical Geography. ..A. Geikie. j Inventional Geometry W. G. 

Geology A. Geikie. Spencer. 

Physiology. ......... M. Foster. Pianoforte Franklin Taylor. 

Astronomy. ........ .J. N. Lockyer. I Political Economy. . W. S. Jevons. 

II. — Edited by J. R. GREEN, M. A., Examiner in the School of Modern History 

at Oxford. 

HISTORY I^IHUCEiRS- 

Greece C. A. Fyffe. i Old Greek Life ... .J. P. Mahaffy. 

Rome M. Creighton. Roman Antiquities. A. S. Wilkins. 

Europe E. A. Freeman, j Geography George Grove. 

III.— Edited by J. R. GREEN, M. A. 



English Grammar R. Morris. 

English Literature Stopford 

Brooke. 

Philology J. Peile. 

Classical Geography. .M. F. Tozer. 
Shakespeare E. Dowden. 



Studies in Bryant J. Alden. 

Greek Literature R. C. Jebb. 

English Grammar Exercises. 
R. Morris. 

Homer W. E. Gladstone. 

English Composition. .J. Nichol. 



(Others in preparation.) 

The object of these primers is to convey information in such a manner as to make it 
both intelligible and interesting to very young pupils, and so to discipline their minds as 
to incline them to more systematic after-studies. In the Science Series some simple ex- 
periments have been devised, leading up to the chief truths of each science. By this 
means the pupil's interest is excited, and the memory is impressed so as to retain without 
difficulty the facts brought under observation. The woodcuts which illustrate these 
primers serve the same purpose, embellishing and explaining the text at the same time. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

549 & 551 Broadway, New York. 



THE 



Model Copy-Bgoks, 

WITH SLIDING COPIES. 

The only Series of Copy-Books with Movable Copies, the superior advantages of which are 

too obvious to be disputed. 
The only Series of Copy- Books which insures rapid improvement at every stage of the pupil's 

practice. 
The only Series of Copy-Books which makes instruction in the subject of Penmanship easy, 

practical, and invariably successful. 



Distinctive Features and Points of Superiority of the 

Model Copy-Books. 

1. The copies are upon movable slips, and are so adjusted that the pupil has the one he 
is writing after always before his eye, instead of his own imperfect work. 

2. No writing-space is taken from the page by the copy. Forty-eight lines of writing are 
thus saved in each book, equivalent to an extra book in every six used. 

3. The analysis of the letters is greatly simplified and abridged. 

4. They have an improved classification of letters, which arc represented in groups having 
common elements by a model letter for practice. 

5. The forms of letters are taught as object-lessons. The willow-leaf illustration of the 
elementary lines is an example of this new and pleasing feature. 

6. Especial attention to correct position and movement is required as the basis of success. 
Instead of five movements, as taught in most series, to the confusion of young beginners, but 
one, and the true one only, is recognized. 

7. They impart a style of writing suitable for every-day business uses, instead of the usual 
cramped "schoolboy" hand. 

8. There are but six numbers in the Series, instead of from twelve to fifteen, as in others. 

9. Exercises are given for writing without ruled lines. 

10. The copies are printed with great distinctness, and are divested of all superfluous orna- 
ment and confusing guide-lines. 

ftW The use of the Model Copy-Books can not fail to secure great success in teaching 
penmanship, and those who have been wedded to the old methods are respectfully invited to 
examine this Series, which, in all respects, may be called a ''model" one. 

A full set of the Model Copy-Books, Six Numbers, will be sent, post paid, to Teachers or 
School-Officers, for examination, on receipt of 50 cents. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

New York, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco. 



NEW BOOKS. 



APPLETONS' SCHOOL READERS, 

BY 

WM. T. HAERIS, LL.D., Sup't of Schools, St. Louis, Mo. 
A. J. RICKOFF, A. M., Sup't of Instruction, Cleveland, Ohio. 
MARK BAILEY, A. M., Instructor in Elocution, Yale College. 

Consisting of Five Books, superbly illustrated. 

Tliese books excel all other school publications of the kind ever issued from the American press. 
The combined product of the best talent and highest scholarship, embellished with every useful 
and attractive adjunct of pictorial art, and constructed with especial regard to mechanical excel- 
lence, they have, as was anticipated, met with extraordinary success, and already attained a popu- 
larity unprecedented in the history of school-books. Specimen copies for examination, with 
reference to introduction, if approved, will be sent to Teachers and Committees at the following 
rates: 



First Reader 10 cents. 

Second Reader 15 " 

Third Reader 20 " 



Fourth Reader 25 cents. 

Fifth Reader 40 " 

The Whole Set $1.10. 



Stickney's Pen and Picture Language Series. In Three Series of Four Num- 
bers each. For Primary and Grammar Schools. The most charming and attractive books 
for Language and Composition Exercises ever prepared. 

" Words, and How to Put Them Together." This little book should be in 
the hands of every boy and girl in our schools. It will not rival any book now in use, but 
is designed to go before all such, and " make their paths straight. 1 ' Sent for examination, 
post-paid, for 25 cents. 

The Model Copy-Books, in Six Numbers, with Sliding Copies, contain so many 
evident marks of superiority that they are received with universal favor. Sample 
number, 10 cents. 

Krusi's Primary Drawing Cards. For Slate and Blackboard Exercises. In Two 
Parts, of 12 Cards am? 36 Exercises each, with INSTRUCTIONS for DRAWING and a 
TEST RULE. " Just the thing for little folks." " Any one can teach Drawing with these 
cards. " Sample set, 10 cents. 

General History, from b. c. 800 to a. d. 1 876. Outlined in Diagrams and Tables ; 
with Index and Genealogies. For General Reference, and for Schools and Colleges. By 
Samuel Willard, A. M., M. D., Professor of History in Chicago High School. 8vo. Cloth, 
$2.00.* \ 

Principles and Practice of Teaching. By James Johonnot. 12mo. Cloth, $1.50. 

Harkness's Preparatory Course in Latin Prose Authors, comprising Four 
Books of Caesar's Gallic War, Sallust's Catiline, and Eight Orations of Cicero. With Notes, 
Illustrations, a Map of Gaul, and a Special Dictionary. 12mo. Cloth, $1.75. For exami- 
nation, $1.00. 

Harkness's Sallust's Catiline, with Notes and other Special Vocabulary. 12mo. 
Cloth, $1.15. 

The Latin Speaker. Easy Dialogues and other Selections for Memorizing and De- 
claiming in the Latin Language. By Frank Sewall, A. M. 12mo. $1.00. 

D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 

New York, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco. 



